| Records |
| Author |
Preston, S.D.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
| Title |
Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Behavioral and Brain Sciences |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav Brain Sci |
| Volume |
25 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
1-20; discussion 20-71 |
| Keywords |
Adult; Animals; Child; Emotions/physiology; *Empathy; Evolution; Haplorhini; Helping Behavior; Humans; Mental Disorders/physiopathology/psychology; Morals; Personality Development; Phylogeny; Prefrontal Cortex/physiopathology; Socialization |
| Abstract |
There is disagreement in the literature about the exact nature of the phenomenon of empathy. There are emotional, cognitive, and conditioning views, applying in varying degrees across species. An adequate description of the ultimate and proximate mechanism can integrate these views. Proximately, the perception of an object's state activates the subject's corresponding representations, which in turn activate somatic and autonomic responses. This mechanism supports basic behaviors (e.g., alarm, social facilitation, vicariousness of emotions, mother-infant responsiveness, and the modeling of competitors and predators) that are crucial for the reproductive success of animals living in groups. The Perception-Action Model (PAM), together with an understanding of how representations change with experience, can explain the major empirical effects in the literature (similarity, familiarity, past experience, explicit teaching, and salience). It can also predict a variety of empathy disorders. The interaction between the PAM and prefrontal functioning can also explain different levels of empathy across species and age groups. This view can advance our evolutionary understanding of empathy beyond inclusive fitness and reciprocal altruism and can explain different levels of empathy across individuals, species, stages of development, and situations. |
| Address |
University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics, 2RCP-Neurology Clinic, Iowa City, IA 52242. stephanie-d-preston@uiowa.edu |
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0140-525X |
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PMID:12625087 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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181 |
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| Author |
Parr, L.A.; Matheson, M.D.; Bernstein, I.S.; De Waal, F.B.M. |
| Title |
Grooming down the hierarchy: allogrooming in captive brown capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
1997 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
54 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
361-367 |
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| Abstract |
Observations of captive female brown capuchin monkeys in five groups revealed that grooming is primarily the occupation of dominant females at both the individual and dyadic levels. When categorized according to rank class, alpha females were the only class to perform significantly more grooming than they received. These results are inconsistent with reports on vervets, baboons and macaques, and suggest that grooming in capuchin monkeys may have different functions from those reported for cercopithecine primates. A dyadic analysis revealed, however, that grooming occurred more often between closely ranked females, similar to what is seen in several Old World monkey species. Therefore, some aspects of grooming in capuchins are similar to that seen in Old World monkeys, but the way they distribute grooming is different, which may prompt a re-evaluation of current theories regarding the social function of allogrooming in non-human primates. |
| Address |
Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center and Department of Psychology, Emory University |
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0003-3472 |
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PMID:9268468 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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200 |
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| Author |
Flack, J.C.; Girvan, M.; de Waal, F.B.M.; Krakauer, D.C. |
| Title |
Policing stabilizes construction of social niches in primates |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Nature |
Abbreviated Journal |
Nature |
| Volume |
439 |
Issue |
7075 |
Pages |
426-429 |
| Keywords |
Animals; Conflict (Psychology); Female; Macaca nemestrina/*physiology/*psychology; Male; Models, Biological; *Social Behavior |
| Abstract |
All organisms interact with their environment, and in doing so shape it, modifying resource availability. Termed niche construction, this process has been studied primarily at the ecological level with an emphasis on the consequences of construction across generations. We focus on the behavioural process of construction within a single generation, identifying the role a robustness mechanism--conflict management--has in promoting interactions that build social resource networks or social niches. Using 'knockout' experiments on a large, captive group of pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina), we show that a policing function, performed infrequently by a small subset of individuals, significantly contributes to maintaining stable resource networks in the face of chronic perturbations that arise through conflict. When policing is absent, social niches destabilize, with group members building smaller, less diverse, and less integrated grooming, play, proximity and contact-sitting networks. Instability is quantified in terms of reduced mean degree, increased clustering, reduced reach, and increased assortativity. Policing not only controls conflict, we find it significantly influences the structure of networks that constitute essential social resources in gregarious primate societies. The structure of such networks plays a critical role in infant survivorship, emergence and spread of cooperative behaviour, social learning and cultural traditions. |
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Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501, USA. jflack@santafe.edu |
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English |
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1476-4687 |
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| Notes |
PMID:16437106 |
Approved |
no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
298 |
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| Author |
Call, J.; Aureli, F.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
| Title |
Postconflict third-party affiliation in stumptailed macaques |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
63 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
209-216 |
| Keywords |
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| Abstract |
Stumptailed macaques, Macaca arctoides, are characterized by high levels of postconflict affiliative contacts between opponents. We investigated the occurrence of postconflict affiliative contacts between opponents and third parties that were not involved in the original conflict. We collected 10-min focal observations during postconflict and control periods in which we recorded all aggressive and affiliative behaviours between opponents and third parties. We distinguished three types of third parties depending on the relationship with the focal animal: own kin, opponent's kin and individuals unrelated to both opponents. We analysed the interactions with third parties separately, while distinguishing two classes of affiliative behaviours: (1) allogrooming and contact sitting and (2) sociosexual behaviours (e.g. genital inspection). The macaques showed differences between postconflict and control periods in their affiliative contacts with third parties. Aggressors received more postconflict grooming and contact sitting from their opponents' kin, received more sociosexual behaviour from their own kin and unrelated individuals, and directed more sociosexual behaviour to unrelated individuals. Victims received and directed less postconflict grooming from and towards their own kin. They received more postconflict sociosexual behaviour from all partners except their own kin and directed more sociosexual behaviour to all partners except the opponent's kin. This study establishes the occurrence of multiple postconflict triadic affiliation in stumptailed macaques, and is the first to show that victims receive contacts from third parties in a cercopithecine species, a behaviour previously described only in chimpanzees. It also highlights the importance of analysing the different affiliative behaviours separately in postconflict situations. Otherwise, many of the patterns we report, especially those involving victims, would have been missed. |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
304 |
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| Author |
Plotnik, J.M.; de Waal, F.B.M.; Reiss, D. |
| Title |
Self-recognition in an Asian elephant |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |
| Volume |
103 |
Issue |
45 |
Pages |
17053-17057 |
| Keywords |
Animals; Asia; *Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Elephants/*psychology; Female; Photic Stimulation |
| Abstract |
Considered an indicator of self-awareness, mirror self-recognition (MSR) has long seemed limited to humans and apes. In both phylogeny and human ontogeny, MSR is thought to correlate with higher forms of empathy and altruistic behavior. Apart from humans and apes, dolphins and elephants are also known for such capacities. After the recent discovery of MSR in dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), elephants thus were the next logical candidate species. We exposed three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to a large mirror to investigate their responses. Animals that possess MSR typically progress through four stages of behavior when facing a mirror: (i) social responses, (ii) physical inspection (e.g., looking behind the mirror), (iii) repetitive mirror-testing behavior, and (iv) realization of seeing themselves. Visible marks and invisible sham-marks were applied to the elephants' heads to test whether they would pass the litmus “mark test” for MSR in which an individual spontaneously uses a mirror to touch an otherwise imperceptible mark on its own body. Here, we report a successful MSR elephant study and report striking parallels in the progression of responses to mirrors among apes, dolphins, and elephants. These parallels suggest convergent cognitive evolution most likely related to complex sociality and cooperation. |
| Address |
Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Department of Psychology, Emory University, 532 North Kligo Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA |
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English |
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0027-8424 |
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| Notes |
PMID:17075063 |
Approved |
no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
408 |
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| Author |
de Waal, F.B.M.; Luttrell, L.M. |
| Title |
Mechanisms of social reciprocity in three primate species: Symmetrical relationship characteristics or cognition? |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
1988 |
Publication |
Ethology and Sociobiology |
Abbreviated Journal |
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| Volume |
9 |
Issue |
2–4 |
Pages |
101-118 |
| Keywords |
Reciprocity; Agonistic intervention; Cognition; Chimpanzees; Macaques |
| Abstract |
Agonistic intervention behavior was observed in captive groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and stumptail monkeys (M. arctoides). Reciprocity correlations of interventions were determined while removing from the data the effects of several symmetrical relationship characteristics, that is, matrillineal kinship, proximity relations, and same-sex combination. It was considered likely that if significant reciprocity persisted after controlling for these characteristics, the reciprocity was based on cognitive mechanisms. Statistical significance was tested by means of recently developed matrix permutation procedures. All three species exhibited significant reciprocity with regard to beneficial interventions, even after controlling for symmetrical traits. Harmful interventions were, however, reciprocal among chimpanzees only. This species showed a “revenge system”, that is, if A often intervened against B, B did the same to A. In contrast, both macaque species showed significantly inversed reciprocity in their harmful interventions: if A often intervened against B, B rarely intervened against A. Further analysis indicates that the strict hierarchy of macaques prevents them from achieving complete reciprocity. Compared to chimpanzees, macaques rarely intervene against higher ranking group members. The observed contrast can be partially explained on the basis of differences in available space, as indicated by a comparison of indoor and outdoor living conditions for the chimpanzee colony. Yet, even when such spatial factors are taken into account, substantial behavior differences between chimpanzees and macaques remain. |
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0162-3095 |
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no |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
5809 |
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| Author |
de Waal, F.B.M.; Ferrari, P.F. |
| Title |
Towards a bottom-up perspective on animal and human cognition |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2010 |
Publication |
Trends in Cognitive Sciences |
Abbreviated Journal |
Trends Cognit. Sci. |
| Volume |
14 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
201-207 |
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| Abstract |
Over the last few decades, comparative cognitive research has focused on the pinnacles of mental evolution, asking all-or-nothing questions such as which animals (if any) possess a theory of mind, culture, linguistic abilities, future planning, and so on. Research programs adopting this top-down perspective have often pitted one taxon against another, resulting in sharp dividing lines. Insight into the underlying mechanisms has lagged behind. A dramatic change in focus now seems to be under way, however, with increased appreciation that the basic building blocks of cognition might be shared across a wide range of species. We argue that this bottom-up perspective, which focuses on the constituent capacities underlying larger cognitive phenomena, is more in line with both neuroscience and evolutionary biology. |
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1364-6613 |
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no |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5857 |
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Horner, V.; Whiten, A.; Flynn, E.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
| Title |
Faithful replication of foraging techniques along cultural transmission chains by chimpanzees and children |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |
| Volume |
103 |
Issue |
37 |
Pages |
13878-13883 |
| Keywords |
Animals; Child, Preschool; Humans; *Imitative Behavior; Pan troglodytes/*psychology |
| Abstract |
Observational studies of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have revealed population-specific differences in behavior, thought to represent cultural variation. Field studies have also reported behaviors indicative of cultural learning, such as close observation of adult skills by infants, and the use of similar foraging techniques within a population over many generations. Although experimental studies have shown that chimpanzees are able to learn complex behaviors by observation, it is unclear how closely these studies simulate the learning environment found in the wild. In the present study we have used a diffusion chain paradigm, whereby a behavior is passed from one individual to the next in a linear sequence in an attempt to simulate intergenerational transmission of a foraging skill. Using a powerful three-group, two-action methodology, we found that alternative methods used to obtain food from a foraging device (“lift door” versus “slide door”) were accurately transmitted along two chains of six and five chimpanzees, respectively, such that the last chimpanzee in the chain used the same method as the original trained model. The fidelity of transmission within each chain is remarkable given that several individuals in the no-model control group were able to discover either method by individual exploration. A comparative study with human children revealed similar results. This study is the first to experimentally demonstrate the linear transmission of alternative foraging techniques by non-human primates. Our results show that chimpanzees have a capacity to sustain local traditions across multiple simulated generations. |
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Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, United Kingdom |
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English |
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0027-8424 |
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| Notes |
PMID:16938863 |
Approved |
no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
159 |
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| Author |
Bonnie, K.E.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
| Title |
Affiliation promotes the transmission of a social custom: handclasp grooming among captive chimpanzees |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Primates |
Abbreviated Journal |
Primates |
| Volume |
47 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
27-34 |
| Keywords |
Animals; Animals, Zoo/*physiology; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; *Cultural Evolution; Grooming/*physiology; Observation; Pan troglodytes/*physiology; *Social Behavior |
| Abstract |
Handclasp grooming is a unique social custom, known to occur regularly among some, but not all populations of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). As with other cultural behaviors, it is assumed that this distinctive grooming posture is learned socially by one individual from another. However, statistical comparisons among factors thought to influence how a behavior spreads within a group have never, to our knowledge, been conducted. In the present study, the origination and spread of handclasp grooming in a group of captive chimpanzees was followed throughout more than 1,500 h of observation over a period of 12 years. We report on the frequency, bout duration, and number and demography of performers throughout the study period, and compare these findings to those reported for wild populations. We predicted that dyads with strong affiliative ties, measured by time spent in proximity to and grooming one another, were likely to develop a handclasp grooming partnership during the study period. A quadratic assignment procedure was used to compare correlations among observed frequencies of grooming and proximity with handclasp grooming in all possible dyads within the group. As predicted, the formation of new handclasp grooming dyads was positively correlated with the rate of overall grooming and proximity within a dyad. In addition, in nearly all dyads formed, at least one individual had been previously observed to handclasp groom. We concluded that affiliation and individual experience determines the transmission of handclasp grooming among captive chimpanzees. |
| Address |
Department of Psychology, Emory University, and Living Links Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, GA 30329, USA. kebonni@emory.edu |
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English |
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0032-8332 |
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PMID:16142425 |
Approved |
no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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161 |
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| Author |
de Waal, F.B.M. |
| Title |
A century of getting to know the chimpanzee |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Nature |
Abbreviated Journal |
Nature |
| Volume |
437 |
Issue |
7055 |
Pages |
56-59 |
| Keywords |
Aggression; Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Competitive Behavior; Cooperative Behavior; Female; Humans; Male; Pan troglodytes/genetics/*physiology/psychology; Sexual Behavior, Animal; *Social Behavior |
| Abstract |
A century of research on chimpanzees, both in their natural habitat and in captivity, has brought these apes socially, emotionally and mentally much closer to us. Parallels and homologues between chimpanzee and human behaviour range from tool-technology and cultural learning to power politics and intercommunity warfare. Few behavioural domains have remained untouched by this increased knowledge, which has dramatically challenged the way we view ourselves. The sequencing of the chimpanzee genome will no doubt bring more surprises and insights. Humans do occupy a special place among the primates, but this place increasingly has to be defined against a backdrop of substantial similarity. |
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Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 North Gatewood Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA. dewaal@emory.edu |
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English |
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1476-4687 |
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| Notes |
PMID:16136128 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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162 |
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