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Vollmerhaus, B., Roos, H., Gerhards, H., & Knospe, C. (2003). [Phylogeny, form and function of canine teeth in the horse]. Anat Histol Embryol, 32(4), 212–217.
Abstract: The canine teeth of the horse developed phylogenically from the simple, pointed, short-rooted tooth form of the leaf eating, in pairs living, Eocene horse Hyracotherium and served up to the Oligocene as a means of defense (self preservation). In the Miocene the living conditions of the Merychippus changed and they took to eating grass and adopted as a new behavior the life in a herd. The canine teeth possibly played an important role in fights for social ranking; they changed from a crown form to knife-like shape. In the Pliohippus the canine tooth usually remained in male horses and since the Pliocene, it contributed to the fights between stallions, to ensure that the offspring only came from the strongest animals (preservation of the species). Form and construction of the canine tooth are described and discussed in detail under the above mentioned phylogenic and ethologic aspects.
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Kumar, P., Timoney, J. F., Southgate, H. H., & Sheoran, A. S. (2000). Light and scanning electron microscopic studies of the nasal turbinates of the horse. Anat Histol Embryol, 29(2), 103–109.
Abstract: The nasal turbinates of 5 young horses were studied by light and scanning electron-microscopy. Stratified cuboidal epithelium lined the rostral part of the dorsal and ventral nasal turbinates of the vestibular region. The polyangular microvillus cells of this region were separated by linear depressions. The mid and caudal parts of the dorsal and ventral nasal turbinates and the rostral part of the ethmoturbinates were lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated respiratory epithelium. Numerous cilia with dilated blebs on the ciliated cells concealed adjacent non-ciliated supporting cells and goblet cells. The olfactory zone consisting of the olfactory vesicle and a dense network of olfactory cilia localized to the caudal part of the ethmoturbinates. The three regions were delineated from each other by transitional zones.
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Grafner, G., Zimmermann, H., Karge, E., Munch, J., Ribbeck, R., & Hiepe, T. (1976). [Incidence and damages inflicted by simuliid flies in the GDR district of Schwerin]. Angew Parasitol, 17(1), 2–6.
Abstract: Systematic faunal studies in the district Schwerin showed at the present time there are 3 more or less damage-biotopes existing in the districts of Perleberg, Ludwigslust and Parchim; 5 river sources can be considered as potential sources, 5 are temporary and 2 are ephemeral whilst in 3 further areas environmental influences such as effluent impairs the flow of the river and the developmental stages of Simuliidae were not observed.--The following species were found: Boophthora erythrocephala, Wilhelmia salopiensis, Wilhelmia equina, Odagmia ornata, Eusimulium aureum and Eusimulium lundstroemi.--The damage statistics covering the period 1966--1971 showed in the district of Schwerin, due to Simuliid attacks, 38 cattle died, 170 were seriously ill; in 1967 5 horses were seriously ill; in 1971, 3 pigs died and 27 were seriously ill.--The symptoms were manifested by pathological petechiae, scabs and oedema, also by insufficiency of the heart and circulatory system, diminished performance and growth disturbance. In severe cases heart and circulation failure occurred, paresis, coma and death followed.--The real economic significance of the Simuliid attacks rest with its strong and prolonged distrubance in young animals, as well as in pronounced irreparable diminished performance in diseased dairy cattle.
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Harrington, F. H. (1987). Aggressive howling in wolves. Anim Behav, 35.
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Tooze, Z. J., Harrington, F. H., & Fentress, J. C. (1990). Individually distinct vocalizations in timber wolves, Canis lupus. Anim Behav, 40.
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Range, F., Möslinger, H., & Virányi, Z. (2012). Domestication has not affected the understanding of means-end connections in dogs. Anim Cogn, 15.
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Hoffmann, G., Bentke, A., Rose-Meierhöfer, S., Berg, W., Mazetti, P., & Hardarson, G. H. (2012). Influence of an active stable system on the behavior and body condition of Icelandic horses. animal, 6(10), 1684–1693.
Abstract: Horses are often stabled in individual boxes, a method that does not meet their natural needs and may cause psychical and
musculoskeletal diseases. This problem is particularly evident in Iceland, where horses often spend the long winter periods in cramped
boxes. The aim of this study was to analyze the suitability of a group housing system in Iceland, but the results are also applicable to
horses of other regions. Eight Icelandic horses were observed in an active stable system, and their behavior and time budget were
recorded. Movement and lying behavior were studied with ALT (Activity, Lying, Temperature detection) pedometers. The effect of an
automatic concentrate feeding station (CFS) on the horses’ behavior was examined. In the first period of investigation, the horses
were fed concentrates manually, and in the second period, they were fed with the CFS. Additional behavioral observations and a
determination of social hierarchy occurred directly or by video surveillance. The physical condition of the horses was recorded by body
weight (BW) measurement and body condition scoring (BCS). The results showed a significant increase between the first and second
trial periods in both the activity (P,0.001) and the lying time (P50.003) of the horses with use of the CFS. However, there was no
significant change in BW during the first period without the CFS (P50.884) or during the second period with the CFS (P50.540).
The BCS of the horses was constant at a very good level during both trial periods, and the horses showed a low level of aggression, a
firm social hierarchy and behavioral synchronization. This study concludes that group housing according to the active stable principle is
a welfare-friendly option for keeping horses and is a suitable alternative to conventional individual boxes.
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Sankey, C., Richard-Yris, M. - A., Leroy, H., Henry, S., & Hausberger, M. (2010). Positive interactions lead to lasting positive memories in horses, Equus caballus. Anim. Behav., 79(4), 869–875.
Abstract: Social relationships are important in social species. These relationships, based on repeated interactions, define each partner's expectations during the following encounters. The creation of a relationship implies high social cognitive abilities which require that each partner is able to associate the positive or negative content of an interaction with a specific partner and to recall this association. In this study, we tested the effects of repeated interactions on the memory kept by 23 young horses about humans, after 6 and 8 months of separation. The association of a reward with a learning task in an interactional context induced positive reactions towards humans during training. It also increased contact and interest, not only just after training, but also several months later, despite no further interaction with humans. In addition, this ‘positive memory’ of humans extended to novel persons. Overall, positive reinforcement enhanced learning and memorization of the task itself. These findings suggest remarkable social cognitive abilities that can be transposed from intraspecific to interspecific social contexts.
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Koski, S. E., & Sterck, E. H. M. (2007). Triadic postconflict affiliation in captive chimpanzees: does consolation console? Anim. Behav., 73(1), 133–142.
Abstract: Consolation is a triadic postconflict interaction between a conflict participant and an uninvolved third party. The term consolation implies stress alleviation. Consequently, consolation may be an effective mechanism to alleviate postconflict stress. However, this assumption has not been tested. We tested whether consolation alleviates postconflict stress in captive chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. In addition, we examined whether consolation is a substitute postconflict interaction for reconciliation. We collected 643 postconflict-matched control pairs on aggressees and 576 on aggressors. Consolation occurred equally frequently with aggressees and aggressors. However, we found no evidence that consolation alleviated stress, regardless of the identity of the consoler. In addition, consolation was also directed to conflict participants with no evident postconflict stress. Furthermore, we found no evidence for consolation being a substitute for reconciliation. The occurrence of consolation did not depend on the occurrence of reconciliation and consolation was not more prevalent with the sex class that reconciled less often or had the highest postconflict stress levels. We conclude that consolation is a postconflict interaction in its own right, the function of which is not likely to be connected to stress alleviation of the consoled individual. We propose that the function of triadic postconflict affiliation, previously labelled as consolation, should be reassessed with regard to the third parties' reasons to affiliate with conflict opponents.
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Judge, P. G., & Mullen, S. H. (2005). Quadratic postconflict affiliation among bystanders in a hamadryas baboon group. Anim. Behav., 69(6), 1345–1355.
Abstract: The tendency in primate groups for two opponents to affiliate shortly after a fight has been described as dyadic reconciliation. The response has been shown to restore disrupted relationships and curtail ongoing aggression. Rates of self-directed behaviour (e.g. scratching) are positively correlated with anxiety in primates and the rates decline after reconciliation, indicating that the response also functions to reduce postconflict tension. Third parties not involved in an aggressive interaction are also likely to affiliate with one of the combatants subsequent to a fight. Such `triadic' interactions may also promote conflict resolution when, for instance, the relatives of a victim affiliate with their relative's aggressor. Because aggression in a group influences a bystander's behaviour with combatants, we hypothesized that aggression between two animals would also influence a bystander's behaviour with other bystanders. Such `quadratic' postconflict interactions might also function to reduce postconflict tension or occur in patterns among kin subgroups to resolve conflict. We tested for quadratic interactions in an 18-member group of captive hamadryas baboons, Papio hamadryas hamadryas. Immediately following a fight, an uninvolved bystander was randomly selected for observation and its affiliative interactions with other bystanders and its displacement activities were recorded for 3 min. Rates of behaviour during these postconflict periods were compared to rates during 3-min baseline periods not preceded by aggression. Bystanders engaged in quadratic interactions by increasing affiliation with other bystanders following aggression. Bystanders directed affiliation to nonkin bystanders that were their preferred social partners. Displacement activities of bystanders were significantly higher during postconflict intervals compared to baseline intervals, and bystander displacement activity levels before affiliative contact with other bystanders were significantly higher than after contact. Apparently, bystanders become tense or anxious after witnessing aggression and affiliate with preferred partners to reduce the arousal.
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