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Dyson, S. (2022). The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram. Equine Vet Educ, 34(7), 372–380.
Abstract: Summary The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) comprises 24 behaviours, the majority of which are at least 10 times more likely to be seen in lame horses compared with non-lame horses. The observation of >=8/24 behaviours is likely to reflect the presence of musculoskeletal pain, although some lame horses score <8/24 behaviours. A marked reduction in RHpE scores after resolution of lameness using diagnostic anaesthesia proves a causal relationship between pain and RHpE scores. Horses should be assessed for approximately 10?min in walk, trot (including 10?m diameter circles), canter and transitions. The validity of the RHpE has been verified for use in horses which perform dressage-type movements, and which have been trained to work with the front of the head in a vertical position. It has not, as yet, been used in horses while jumping, racehorses, western performance or endurance horses. The RHpE provides a valuable tool for riders, trainers, veterinarians and other equine professionals to recognise the presence of musculoskeletal pain, even if overt lameness cannot be recognised. Riders with a higher skill-level may improve gait quality, but cannot obscure behavioural signs of pain, although specific behaviours may change. Tight saddle tree points, the rider sitting on the caudal third of the saddle and rider weight may influence RHpE scores. Accurate application of the RHpE requires training and practice. The RHpE is a powerful tool for the assessment of ridden horses and the identification of likely musculoskeletal pain. Such pain merits further investigation and treatment, to improve equine welfare and performance. The RHpE provides an additional means of evaluating the response to diagnostic anaesthesia. It provides a mechanism for client education and a diplomatic way of communicating with clients about equine discomfort related to saddle-fit, rider size, their position in the saddle and ability to ride in balance.
Keywords: horse; lameness; canter; behaviour; saddle-fit; rider skill
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Gleerup, K. B., & Lindegaard, C. (2016). Recognition and quantification of pain in horses: A tutorial review. Equine Vet Educ, 28(1), 47–57.
Abstract: Summary Pain management is dependent on the quality of the pain evaluation. Ideally, pain evaluation is objective, pain-specific and easily incorporated into a busy equine clinic. This paper reviews the existing knowledge base regarding the identification and quantification of pain in horses. Behavioural indicators of pain in horses in the context of normal equine behaviour, as well as various physiological parameters potentially useful for pain evaluation, are discussed. Areas where knowledge is sparse are identified and a new equine pain scale based on results from all reviewed papers is proposed. Finally, the most important considerations in relation to the implementation of a pain scale in a hospital setting are discussed.
Keywords: horse; pain evaluation; pain scale; pain behaviour; pain face
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Harman, A. M., Moore, S., Hoskins, R., & Keller, P. (1999). Horse vision and an explanation for the visual behaviour originally explained by the 'ramp retina'. Equine Vet J, 31(5), 384–390.
Abstract: Here we provide confirmation that the 'ramp retina' of the horse, once thought to result in head rotating visual behaviour, does not exist. We found a 9% variation in axial length of the eye between the streak region and the dorsal periphery. However, the difference was in the opposite direction to that proposed for the 'ramp retina'. Furthermore, acuity in the narrow, intense visual streak in the inferior retina is 16.5 cycles per degree compared with 2.7 cycles per degree in the periphery. Therefore, it is improbable that the horse rotates its head to focus onto the peripheral retina. Rather, the horse rotates the nose up high to observe distant objects because binocular overlap is oriented down the nose, with a blind area directly in front of the forehead.
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van Heel, M. C. V., Kroekenstoel, A. M., van Dierendonck, M. C., van Weeren, P. R., & Back, W. (2006). Uneven feet in a foal may develop as a consequence of lateral grazing behaviour induced by conformational traits. Equine. Vet. J., 38(7), 646–651.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Conformational traits are important in breeding, since they may be indicative for performance ability and susceptibility to injuries. OBJECTIVES: To study whether certain desired conformational traits of foals are related to lateralised behaviour while foraging and to the development of uneven feet. METHODS: Twenty-four Warmblood foals, born and raised at the same location, were studied for a year. Foraging behaviour was observed by means of weekly 10 min scan-sampling for 8 h. A preference test (PT) was developed to serve as a standardised tool to determine laterality. The foals were evaluated at age 3, 15, 27 and 55 weeks. The PT and distal limb conformation were used to study the relation between overall body conformation, laterality and the development of uneven feet. Pressure measurements were used to determine the loading patterns under the feet. RESULTS: About 50% of the foals developed a significant preference to protract the same limb systematically while grazing, which resulted in uneven feet and subsequently uneven loading patterns. Foals with relatively long limbs and small heads were predisposed to develop laterality and, consequently unevenness. CONCLUSIONS: Conformational traits may stimulate the development of laterality and therefore indirectly cause uneven feet.
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Bachmann, I., Audige, L., & Stauffacher, M. (2003). Risk factors associated with behavioural disorders of crib-biting, weaving and box-walking in Swiss horses. Equine Vet J, 35(2), 158–163.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Studies on the prevalence of behavioural disorders in horses and on associated risk factors have revealed inconsistent results. There are many studies on the neuropharmacological, surgical or mechanical therapy of stereotypies, but little is known about their causation. OBJECTIVES: To explore risk factors associated with the occurrence of behavioural disorders in horses. METHODS: A sample of horse owners, selected randomly and representative for Switzerland, was contacted in a postal survey. Answers were provided for 622 stables (response rate 35.2%). Individual data of 2,341 horses were examined with path analysis (multivariable linear and logistic regression), and adjustment made for possible confounding effects due to age and breed. RESULTS: Out of 60 possible risk factors, 11 were associated with the outcome at the univariable level (null-hypothesis path model) and 3 factors remained after the backward logistic regression procedure. Mature Warmbloods and Thoroughbreds, assessed by the owners to be reactive, fed 4 times a day and without daily pasture, had increased odds of displaying crib-biting, weaving and box-walking. Furthermore, indirect associations of 5 factors with the outcome were identified. CONCLUSIONS: The final logistic regression model of risk factors leads to the hypotheses that causal prevention of stereotypic behaviours should be based upon housing and management conditions which allow tactile contact with other horses (e.g. mutual grooming), daily free movement (paddock or pasture), as well as the provision of high amounts of roughage but of little or no concentrates. POTENTIAL CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is one of the aims of population medicine to prevent the development of behavioural disorders. Further research is needed to test the concluding hypotheses in experimental studies or to verify them in the context of similar observational studies.
Keywords: Animal Husbandry/*methods; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Confounding Factors (Epidemiology); Data Collection; Female; Horse Diseases/epidemiology/*etiology/prevention & control; Horses; *Housing, Animal; Male; Mental Disorders/epidemiology/etiology/prevention & control/*veterinary; Prevalence; Regression Analysis; Risk Factors; *Stereotyped Behavior; Switzerland/epidemiology
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Rhodin, M., Johnston, C., Holm, K. R., Wennerstrand, J., & Drevemo, S. (2005). The influence of head and neck position on kinematics of the back in riding horses at the walk and trot. Equine Vet J, 37(1), 7–11.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: A common opinion among riders and in the literature is that the positioning of the head and neck influences the back of the horse, but this has not yet been measured objectively. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of head and neck position on the kinematics of the back in riding horses. METHODS: Eight Warmblood riding horses in regular work were studied on a treadmill at walk and trot with the head and neck in 3 different predetermined positions achieved by side reins attached to the bit and to an anticast roller. The 3-dimensional movement of the thoracolumbar spine was measured from the position of skin-fixed markers recorded by infrared videocameras. RESULTS: Head and neck position influenced the movements of the back, especially at the walk. When the head was fixed in a high position at the walk, the flexion-extension movement and lateral bending of the lumbar back, as well as the axial rotation, were significantly reduced when compared to movements with the head free or in a low position. At walk, head and neck position also significantly influenced stride length, which was shortest with the head in a high position. At trot, the stride length was independent of head position. CONCLUSIONS: Restricting and restraining the position and movement of the head and neck alters the movement of the back and stride characteristics. With the head and neck in a high position stride length and flexion and extension of the caudal back were significantly reduced. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Use of side reins in training and rehabilitation programmes should be used with an understanding of the possible effects on the horse's back.
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Bonin, S. J., Clayton, H. M., Lanovaz, J. L., & Johnston, T. (2007). Comparison of mandibular motion in horses chewing hay and pellets. Equine Vet. J., 39(3), 258–262.
Abstract: Summary Reasons for performing study: Previous studies have suggested that temporomandibular joint (TMJ) kinematics depend on the type of food being masticated, but accurate measurements of TMJ motion in horses chewing different feeds have not been published. Hypothesis: The temporomandibular joint has a larger range of motion when horses chew hay compared to pellets. Methods: An optical motion capture system was used to track skin markers on the skull and mandible of 7 horses as they chewed hay and pellets. A virtual marker was created on the midline between the mandibles at the level of the 4th premolar teeth to represent the overall motion of the mandible relative to the skull during the chewing cycle. Results: Frequency of the chewing cycles was lower for hay than for pellets. Excursions of the virtual mandibular marker were significantly larger in all 3 directions when chewing hay compared to pellets. The mean velocity of the virtual mandibular marker during the chewing cycle was the same when chewing the 2 feeds. Conclusions: The range of mediolateral displacement of the mandible was sufficient to give full occlusal contact of the upper and lower dental arcades when chewing hay but not when chewing pellets. Potential relevance: These findings support the suggestion that horses receiving a diet high in concentrate feeds may require more frequent dental prophylactic examinations and treatments to avoid the development of dental irregularities associated with smaller mandibular excursions during chewing.
Keywords: horse; temporomandibular joint; mastication; kinematics
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Morgan, K., Funkquist, P., & Nyman, G. (2002). The effect of coat clipping on thermoregulation during intense exercise in trotters. Equine Veterinary Journal, 34(S34), 564–567.
Abstract: Summary The aim of this study was to study the physiological, especially thermoregulatory, responses during intense exercise in the clipped horse compared to the horse with winter coat. Six Standardbred trotters were studied before and after clipping. They performed an inclined incremental high intensity treadmill exercise test and were monitored during recovery. The clipped horse differed significantly (ANOVA) during exercise as compare to coated: less increase in central venous blood temperature, higher skin surface temperature, greater difference skin to ambient temperature and higher rate of nonevaporative heat loss. The clipped horse had significantly lower total cutaneous evaporative heat loss from walk to end of peak exercise and a shorter time for recovery for the respiratory rate using a paired t test. The clipped horse showed a tendency (P = 0.059) to decreased oxygen uptake during the stepwise increase in workload. We concluded that the clipped horse experienced less strain on the thermoregulatory system due to an enhanced heat loss. Some clipped horses in the study showed a more efficient power output; future studies with emphasis on respiration and oxygen demand are needed to explain this.
Keywords: horse; thermoregulation; heat loss; recovery; blood temperature; oxygen uptake
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Drevemo, S., Fredricson, I., Hjertén, G., & McMIKEN, D. (1987). Early development of gait asymmetries in trotting Standardbred colts. Equine. Vet. J., 19(3), 189–191.
Abstract: Summary Ten trotting Standardbred colts were recorded by high-speed cinematography at the ages of eight, 12 and 18 months. The horses were trotting on a treadmill operating at 4.0 m/secs. Five horses were subjected to a programme of intensified training from eight months of age, whereas the others were not trained and acted as controls. The films were analysed on a semi-automatic film-reading equipment and a number of variables used to demonstrate the gait symmetry were calculated and scaled by computer. Certain differences between left and right diagonal and contralateral pair of limbs, respectively, were noted, suggesting that laterality in horses may be inherited. The most pronounced systematic differences were found in 18-month old horses in the trained group. The results show the importance of careful gait examination and comprehensive coordination training at an early age.
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Goodwin, D. (1999). The importance of ethology in understanding the behaviour of the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal, 31(S28), 15–19.
Abstract: Summary Domestication has provided the horse with food, shelter, veterinary care and protection, allowing individuals an increased chance of survival. However, the restriction of movement, limited breeding opportunities and a requirement to expend energy, for the benefit of another species, conflict with the evolutionary processes which shaped the behaviour of its predecessors. The behaviour of the horse is defined by its niche as a social prey species but many of the traits which ensured the survival of its ancestors are difficult to accommodate in the domestic environment. There has been a long association between horses and man and many features of equine behaviour suggest a predisposition to interspecific cooperation. However, the importance of dominance in human understanding of social systems has tended to overemphasise its importance in the human-horse relationship. The evolving horse-human relationship from predation to companionship, has resulted in serial conflicts of interest for equine and human participants. Only by understanding the nature and origin of these conflicts can ethologists encourage equine management practices which minimise deleterious effects on the behaviour of the horse.
Keywords: horse; behaviour; domestication; interspecific communication
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