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Cooper, M. A., & Bernstein, I. S. (2002). Counter aggression and reconciliation in Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis). Am. J. Primatol., 56(4), 215–230.
Abstract: Patterns of aggressive and affiliative behavior, such as counter aggression and reconciliation, are said to covary in the genus Macaca; this is referred to as the systematic variation hypothesis. These behavior patterns constitute a species dominance style. Van Schaik's [1989] socioecological model explains dominance style in macaques in terms of within- and between-group contest competition. Dominance style is also said to correlate with phylogeny in macaques. The present study was undertaken to examine phylogenetic and socioecological explanations of dominance style, as well as the systematic variation hypothesis. We collected data on counter aggression and reconciliation from a habituated group of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) at the Tukeswari Temple in Assam, India. The proportion of agonistic episodes that involved counter aggression was relatively low. Counter aggression, however, occurred more often among males than among females, and it was most common when females initiated aggression against males. The conciliatory tendency for this group of Assamese macaques was 11.2%. The frequency of reconciliation was low for fights among males and for fights among females, but reconciliation was particularly rare for opposite-sexed opponents. Female social relationships were consistent with the systematic variation hypothesis, and suggest a despotic dominance style. A despotic dominance style in Assamese macaques weakens the correlation between dominance style and phylogeny in macaques, but it is not inconsistent with the socioecological model. Male-female relationships were not well explained by the despotic-egalitarian framework, and males may well have more tolerant social relationships than do females. Sex differences need to be considered when categorizing species according to dominance style.
Keywords: *Aggression; Animals; Female; *Macaca; Male; Phylogeny; Sex Factors; *Social Behavior; Social Dominance
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Pereira, M. E., Schill, J. L., & Charles, E. P. (2000). Reconciliation in captive Guyanese squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Am. J. Primatol., 50(2), 159–167.
Abstract: The tendency for agonistic interaction to increase the probability of friendly interaction between social partners has been demonstrated across a range of Old World primates. While research on such post-conflict behavior proceeds into an hypothesis-testing phase, new comparative information must accumulate to provide full phylogenetic perspective on primate social behavior. Data from New World and prosimian primates are yet extremely limited. We studied captive squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) via post-conflict (PC) and matched control (MC) observations and analyzed results using both the PC-MC and time-rule methods. Former opponents maintaining affiliative relationships soon engaged in friendly interaction following large proportions of agonistic interactions, whereas non-affiliated individuals, including virtually all male-female pairs, reconciled conflicts rarely. Close-proximity approaching and huddling contact constituted the principal modes of post-conflict amicability. Agonistic interactions of relatively high intensity were most likely to be reconciled and most likely to be reconciled via physical contact. High vulnerability of Saimiri to predation may have favored this species' strong inclination to reconcile soon after agonistic interaction. Research on free-living populations of this and other primate species is needed to illuminate similarities and differences across taxa.
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Sueur, C., Jacobs, A., Amblard, F., Petit, O., & King, A. J. (2010). How can social network analysis improve the study of primate behavior? Am. J. Primatol., 73(8), 703–719.
Abstract: Abstract When living in a group, individuals have to make trade-offs, and compromise, in order to balance the advantages and disadvantages of group life. Strategies that enable individuals to achieve this typically affect inter-individual interactions resulting in nonrandom associations. Studying the patterns of this assortativity using social network analyses can allow us to explore how individual behavior influences what happens at the group, or population level. Understanding the consequences of these interactions at multiple scales may allow us to better understand the fitness implications for individuals. Social network analyses offer the tools to achieve this. This special issue aims to highlight the benefits of social network analysis for the study of primate behaviour, assessing it's suitability for analyzing individual social characteristics as well as group/population patterns. In this introduction to the special issue, we first introduce social network theory, then demonstrate with examples how social networks can influence individual and collective behaviors, and finally conclude with some outstanding questions for future primatological research. Am. J. Primatol. 73:703?719, 2011. ? 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Overdorff, D. J., Erhart, E. M., & Mutschler, T. (2005). Does female dominance facilitate feeding priority in black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) in southeastern Madagascar? Am. J. Primatol., 66(1), 7–22.
Abstract: Although many Malagasy lemurs are thought to be female dominant and to have female feeding priority, to date the relationship between these behaviors has been rigorously established only in Lemur catta, and other ways that females might achieve feeding priority have not been examined closely. Erhart and Overdorff [International Journal of Primatology 20:927-940, 1999] suggested that one way female primates achieve feeding priority is to initiate and lead groups to food, thereby gaining access to the food first and positively influencing their food intake compared to other group members. Here we describe female dominance patterns and potential measures of feeding priority in two groups of black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) that were observed over a 15-month period in southeastern Madagascar. We predicted that the females would 1) be consistently dominant to males, 2) lead groups to food sources more often than males, and 3) have higher feeding rates compared to males when they arrived at food sources first. The results were dissimilar between the study groups. During the study, the oldest adult female in group 1 died. There was no evidence for female dominance in this group, and the remaining (likely natal) female did not lead the group more often, nor did she have a higher food intake than males. Group 1 dispersed shortly after the time frame reported here. In contrast, the resident female in group 2 was dominant to group males (based on agonistic interactions), led the group to food sources more often, and experienced a higher food intake when she arrived first at a food source. How these patterns vary over time and are influenced by the number of females in groups, group stability, food quality, and reproductive condition will be examined in future analyses.
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Capitanio, J. P., & Widaman, K. F. (2005). Confirmatory factor analysis of personality structure in adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Am. J. Primatol., 65(3), 289–294.
Abstract: Reports from different laboratories have suggested that nonhuman primates have somewhat similar dimensions of personality. To date, however, no attempts have been made to statistically replicate a specific factor structure. In the present report, two independent observers recorded the behavior of 58 adult male rhesus monkeys, and then rated the animals with the use of a 50-item personality instrument. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the ratings resulted in the replication of a previously described four-factor personality structure [Maninger et al., American Journal of Primatology 61:73-83, 2003]. The first two dimensions-Sociability and Confidence-showed strong loadings and are similar to Affiliation and Agency dimensions in humans. The remaining dimensions-Equability and Irritability-were less clear, and it is possible that additional traits will have to be identified before a more robust structure can be established for these dimensions.
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Maninger, N., Capitanio, J. P., Mendoza, S. P., & Mason, W. A. (2003). Personality influences tetanus-specific antibody response in adult male rhesus macaques after removal from natal group and housing relocation. Am. J. Primatol., 61(2), 73–83.
Abstract: Previous research has suggested that personality is related to immune function in macaques. Using a prospective design, we examined whether variation in the personality dimension “Sociability” in adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was related to the in vivo secondary antibody response to a tetanus toxoid booster immunization following removal from natal groups and relocation to individual housing. We also explored whether the timing of the immunization following relocation had an impact on the immune response. Blood was sampled at the time of booster immunization, at 14 and 28 days post-immunization, and approximately 9 months post-immunization. Plasma was assayed for tetanus-specific IgG by enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA). There was no difference between High- and Low-Sociable animals in antibody levels at the time of the booster immunization. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that High-Sociable animals had a significantly higher antibody response following relocation and immunization compared to Low-Sociable animals. There was no effect of timing of the immunization on the immune response. The results confirm that personality factors can affect animals' immune responses, and that the dimension Sociability may be influential in a male's response to social separation and relocation.
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Schwartz, B. L., & Evans, S. (2001). Episodic memory in primates. Am. J. Primatol., 55(2), 71–85.
Abstract: Episodic memory refers to a system of memory with the capacity to recollect specific events from an individual's life. Some psychologists have suggested that episodic memory is a uniquely human phenomenon. We challenge that idea and present evidence that great apes and other primates may possess episodic-like memory. We review criteria developed to assess episodic-like memory in nonhumans, and how they apply to primates. In particular, we discuss the criteria of Clayton et al. [2001], who stated that episodic-like memory is based on the retrieval of multiple and integrated components of an event. We then review eight studies examining memory in great apes and apply the Clayton et al. criteria to each of them. We summarize the evidence that is compatible with the existence of episodic-like memory, although none of the data completely satisfy the Clayton et al. criteria. Morover, feelings of pastness and feelings of confidence, which mark episodic memory in humans, have not been empirically addressed in nonhuman primates. Future studies should be directed at these aspects of memory in primates. We speculate on the functional significance of episodic memory in nonhuman primates.
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Capitanio, J. P. (1999). Personality dimensions in adult male rhesus macaques: prediction of behaviors across time and situation. Am. J. Primatol., 47(4), 299–320.
Abstract: The idea that consistencies in behavior exist over time and across situations underlies human personality research. Although several studies have examined personality in nonhuman primates, there are very few data showing the predictive power of personality factors. The goal of the present study was to determine whether personality dimensions, identified in adult male rhesus monkeys living in half-acre cages, predicted behavior in situations different from the one from which the dimensions were originally derived and at time points of up to 4.5 years after the original assessments. Four personality dimensions (Sociability, Confidence, Excitability, and Equability) were identified using psychometric procedures and were correlated with behaviors recorded in several situations: the animals' natal groups, during tests of behavioral responsiveness while in individual cages, in small stable and unstable social groups, while viewing stimulus videotapes, and during stable social dyads. Results indicated substantial predictability. Sociability reflected a greater tendency to engage in affiliative interactions. Confidence correlated with more aggressive behaviors and with behaviors that suggest less attractiveness. Animals high in Excitability were somewhat inconsistent in their social behavior, perhaps reflecting hyper-responsiveness to novel circumstances and thwarted opportunities for escape. Equability appeared to be related to a less aggressive, more passive, style of interaction. Excitability and Equability appear to reflect more stylistic components of social behavior, whereas Sociability and Confidence may be more content-based dimensions. Sociability was strongly related to size of kin network in the animals' natal groups, suggesting an important role for ontogeny in this dimension. These data suggest that a limited number of personality dimensions exist in adult male rhesus macaques, and that these dimensions have predictive power that is both long-term and cross situational.
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Heath-Lange, S., Ha, J. C., & Sackett, G. P. (1999). Behavioral measurement of temperament in male nursery-raised infant macaques and baboons. Am. J. Primatol., 47(1), 43–50.
Abstract: We define temperament as an individual's set of characteristic behavioral responses to novel or challenging stimuli. This study adapted a temperament scale used with rhesus macaques by Schneider and colleagues [American Journal of Primatology 25:137-155, 1991] for use with male pigtailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina, n = 7), longtailed macaque (M. fascicularis, n = 3), and baboon infants (Papio cynocephalus anubis, n = 4). Subjects were evaluated twice weekly for the first 5 months of age during routine removal from their cages for weighing. Behavioral measures were based on the subject's interactions with a familiar human caretaker and included predominant state before capture, response to capture, contact latency, resistance to tester's hold, degree of clinging, attention to environment, defecation/urination, consolability, facial expression, vocalizations, and irritability. Species differences indicated that baboons were more active than macaques in establishing or terminating contact with the tester. Temperament scores decreased over time for the variables Response to Capture and Contact Latency, indicating that as they grew older, subjects became less reactive and more bold in their interactions with the tester. Temperament scores changed slowly with age, with greater change occurring at younger ages. The retention of variability in reactivity between and within species may be advantageous for primates, reflecting the flexibility necessary to survive in a changing environment.
Keywords: Age Factors; Animal Technicians; Animals; Animals, Newborn/psychology; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Defecation; Facial Expression; Humans; Irritable Mood; Macaca fascicularis/*psychology; Male; Papio/*psychology; Sex Characteristics; Species Specificity; Temperament/*physiology; Urination; Vocalization, Animal; Weaning
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McDonnell, S. M., Freeman, D. A., Cymbaluk, N. F., Schott, H. C. 2nd, Hinchcliff, K., & Kyle, B. (1999). Behavior of stabled horses provided continuous or intermittent access to drinking water. Am J Vet Res, 60(11), 1451–1456.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To compare quantitative measures and clinical assessments of behavior as an indication of psychologic well-being of stabled horses provided drinking water continuously or via 1 of 3 intermittent delivery systems. ANIMALS: 22 Quarter Horse (QH) or QH-crossbred mares and 17 Belgian or Belgian-crossbred mares (study 1) and 24 QH or QH-crossbred mares and 18 Belgian or Belgian-crossbred mares (study 2). PROCEDURE: Stabled horses were provided water continuously or via 1 of 3 intermittent water delivery systems in 2 study periods during a 2-year period. Continuous 24-hour videotaped samples were used to compare quantitative measures and clinical assessments of behavior among groups provided water by the various water delivery systems. RESULTS: All horses had clinically normal behavior. Significant differences in well being were not detected among groups provided water by the various delivery systems. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Various continuous and intermittent water delivery systems can provide adequately for the psychologic well-being of stabled horses.
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