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Fazio, E., Medica, P., Cravana, C., Giacoppo, E., & Ferlazzo, A. (2008). Effect of Short-Distance Road Transport on Thyroid Function, Rectal Temperature, Body Weight and Heart Rate of Stallions. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Aim of study was to investigate the effects of transport stress on thyroid response, body weight, rectal temperature and heart rate changes in one hundred twenty-six healthy stallions in basal conditions, before and after short road transport. One hundred twenty-six Thoroughbreds and crossbreds stallions with previous travelling experience, aged 4 to 15 yr, were transported by road in a commercial trailer for a period of 3 h (distance <300 km). Blood samples and physiological parameters were collected at 0800 (basal I) and at 1100 (basal II), in each horse“s box, one week before the loading and transport in basal conditions, and one week later, at 0800 immediately before loading (pre-transport), and after 3 h period of transport and unloading, on their arrival at the breeding stations (post-transport), in each new horse”s box, within 30 min. Increases in circulating T3, T4 and fT4 levels (P < 0.01), but not for fT3 levels, were observed after transport, as compared to before loading values, irrespective of different breed. Lower T4 and fT4 levels were observed in basal II (P < 0.01) than basal I and before loading values (pre-transport). After transport Thoroughbreds showed higher fT3 (P < 0.05) and fT4 (P < 0.01) levels than crossbred stallions. No significant differences for T3 and T4 changes were observed. A significant increase in rectal temperature (P < 0.01) and heart rate (P < 0.05) was observed after transport, as compared to before loading values (pre-transport). No differences between basal I, basal II and before loading values (pre-transport) for physiological parameters were observed.
The highest T3, T4 and fT4 levels recorded after short transport seem to suggest a preferential release from the thyroid gland. The results indicate that short road transport stress contributes significantly to thyroid hormone changes, according to different breed, and to the increase in rectal temperature and heart rate. No differences related to different age were observed. |
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Shanahan, S. (2003). Trailer loading stress in horses: behavioral and physiological effects of nonaversive training (TTEAM). J Appl Anim Welf Sci, 6(4), 263–274.
Abstract: Resistance in the horse to trailer loading is a common source of stress and injury to horses and their handlers. The objective of this study was to determine whether nonaversive training based on the Tellington-Touch Equine Awareness Method (TTEAM; Tellington-Jones &Bruns, 1988) would decrease loading time and reduce stress during loading for horses with a history of reluctance to load. Ten horses described by their owners as “problem loaders” were subjected to pretraining and posttraining assessments of loading. Each assessment involved two 7-min loading attempts during which heart rate and saliva cortisol were measured. The training consisted of six 30-min sessions over a 2-week period during which the horse and owner participated in basic leading exercises with obstacles simulating aspects of trailering. Assessment showed heart rate and saliva cortisol increased significantly during loading as compared to baseline (p <.001 and p <.05, respectively). Reassessment after training showed a decrease in loading time (p <.02), reduced heart rate during loading (p <.002), and reduced saliva cortisol as compared to pretraining assessments. Seven “good loaders” also were subject to loading assessment for physiological comparison. Increases in heart rate during loading were significantly higher in the good loaders (p <.001). Nonaversive training simulating aspects of loading may effectively reduce loading time and stress during loading for horses with a history of resistance to trailer loading.
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Ferguson, D. L., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2001). Loading the problem loader: the effects of target training and shaping on trailer-loading behavior of horses. J Appl Behav Anal, 34(4), 409–423.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop an effective method for trailer loading horses based on principles of positive reinforcement. Target training and shaping were used to teach trailer-loading behavior to 5 quarter horse mares in a natural setting. All 5 had been trailer loaded before through the use of aversive stimulation. Successive approximations to loading and inappropriate behaviors were the dependent variables. After training a horse to approach a target, the target was moved to various locations inside the trailer. Horses started training on the left side of a two-horse trailer. After a horse was loading on the left side, she was moved to the right side, then to loading half on the right and half on the left. A limited-hold procedure and the presence of a companion horse seemed to facilitate training for 1 horse. Inappropriate behaviors fell to zero immediately after target training, and all the horses successfully completed the shaping sequence. Finally, these effects were observed to generalize to novel conditions (a different trainer and a different trailer).
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Wilson, M. T., Silvestrini, M. C., Morpurgo, L., & Brunori, M. (1979). Electron transfer kinetics between Rhus vernicifera stellacyanin and cytochrome c (horse heart cytochrome c and Pseudomonas cytochrome c551). J Inorg Biochem, 11(2), 95–100.
Abstract: The electron transfer reactions between Rhus vernicifera stellacyanin and either horse heart cytochrome c or Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytochrome c551 were investigated by rapid reaction techniques. The time course of electron transfer is monophasic under all conditions, and thus consistent with a simple formulation of the reaction. Both stopped-flow and temperature-jump experiments yield equilibrium constants in reasonable agreement with values calculated from the redox potentials. The differences in reaction rate between the two cytochromes and stellacyanin are discussed in terms of the Marcus theory.
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Czerlinski, G. H., Erickson, J. O., & Theorell, H. (1979). Chemical relaxation studies on the horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase system. Physiol Chem Phys, 11(6), 537–569.
Abstract: Chemical relaxation studies on the system horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and ethanol were conducted observing fluorescence changes between 400 and 500 nm. Temperature-jump experiments were performed at pH 6.5, 7.0, 8.0, and 9.0; concentration-jump experiments at pH 9.0. The reciprocal of the slowest relaxation time was found to be linearly dependent upon the enzyme concentration for relatively low enzyme concentrations, as predicted earlier. Use of the wide pH-range necessitated expression of the four apparent dissociation constants of the catalytic reaction cycle in terms of pH-independent constants. The system was described in terms of only one (or two) catalysis-linked protons not associated with the electron transfer. Protonic steps in a buffered system are in rapid equilibrium, too fast to be measured with the equipment available. Assuming only two of the four bimolecular reaction steps in the four-step cycle are fast compared to the remaining two, six cases may be considered with six expressions for the reciprocal of the slowest relaxation time. Comparison with the experimental data revealed that the bimolecular reaction steps governing the slowest relaxation time change with pH. Above the effective time resolution of the temperature-lump instrument with fluorescence detection (0.1 msec) only one other relaxation time was detectable and only at pH 9. This relaxation time, found to be independent of the concentration of all reactants within experimental error (r = 10 +/- 5 msec), is most likely due to an interconversion among ternary complexes.
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Berger, A., & Wolfram, M. (2012). How to come together best? – Studies on integration processes of Przewalski horses into new groups (Equus ferus przewalskii). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Conservation of endangered species in zoos and other protected areas has saved several species from extinction. The Przewalski horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) is one of that species and, being an attractive large ungulate, it is a “flagship species” for conservation projects. Reintroduction into its former habitat is accompanied by many difficulties and is a great challenge. Semireserves have been defined as enclosures large enough to maintain groups of Przewalski horses throughout all seasons of the year without any supplemental provisioning. The animals are kept isolated from external human influences as far as possible, except for necessary interventions such as veterinary care. Hence, the purpose is not limited to preparing animals for survival under natural conditions, but is equally related to the need to gain experience in establishment of free-ranging populations. Naturally, horses live in groups in which all individuals are long-term acquainted with each other and a stable hierarchical system is established. In conservation management an integration of horses into strange groups is often need but at the same time implies social fights, stress and risks for the animals. We investigated the integration process of 4 Przewalski horses from Zoo Leipzig into the herd of 5 Przewalski horses in the semireserve Liebenthal (Brandenburg, Germany). Before transportation the social structure was determined in both the herd in Zoo Leipzig and in Liebenthal. After transportation the social hierarchy and the individual dominance indices were determined by daily observation. Continuous records of activity and feeding were taken from several individuals using the ETHOSYS-storage telemetry system. The automatically recorded behaviours were analysed for daily and ultradian rhythms and used for stress detection by calculating a value (DFC) representative for regularity and stability of rhythmic structures. In zoo conditions, the behaviour was very regular and the daily pattern nearly identical from day to day as expressed by DFC´s near of 100%. After transportation, the behaviour became much less regular, DFC´s dropped significantly, recovered slowly and stabilised on values typically for semireserve conditions. Social bindings and dominances of the former two herds were mainly retained. As an important result, long lasting and stepwise transition from zoo to natural habitats with special training using new observing techniques can be strongly recommended.
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Casella, S., Fazio, F., Giannetto, C., Giudice, E., & Piccione, G. (2012). Influence of transportation on serum concentrations of acute phase proteins in horse. Research in Veterinary Science, 93(2), 914–917.
Abstract: The modifications of Haptoglobin (Hp), Serum Amyloid A (SAA), Fibrinogen (Fbg) and White Blood Cells (WBCs) were evaluated in 15 Saddle Italian horses. Ten horses were transported covering a distance of about 320 km within 4 h with an average speed of 80 km/h (experimental group) and five horses were not subject to transportation (control group). Blood was collected via jugular venipuncture before the transportation (T0), immediately after the transportation (T1), 12 (T12), 24 (T24) and 48 (T48) hours after the transportation in experimental group and at the same time point in control group. For each parameter statistical analysis of different groups and sampling time was performed using a two-way analysis of covariance, with the data before the transportation (T0) as the covariate, by the GLM procedure of SAS. For all parameters the interaction (Group × Time) was tested and it was resulted no significant. The application of statistical analysis showed significant differences between the control group and horses subjected to transportation (P < 0.01), and the influence of sampling time (P < 0.05) on Hp, SAA and WBCs. These modifications appeared to be innovative showing that equine Hp, generally considered as moderate acute phase protein, increases more rapidly than the SAA after transportation-induced stress.
Keywords: Acute phase proteins; Horse; Transportation stress; Welfare; White Blood Cells
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Atock, M. A., & Williams, R. B. (1994). Welfare of competition horses. Rev Sci Tech, 13(1), 217–232.
Abstract: In the large majority of cases and circumstances, horses benefit from their association with man. However, abuse of horses can occur, due to neglect or through the pressures of competition. The welfare of all animals, including competition horses, has become increasingly topical over the past ten years. Equestrian sport is coming under closer public scrutiny due to reports of apparent abuse. The bodies responsible for regulating these sports strenuously endeavour to protect the welfare of horses which compete under their rules and regulations. The Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI: International Equestrian Federation) is the sole authority for all international events in dressage, show-jumping, three-day event, driving, endurance riding and vaulting. The FEI rules illustrate the ways in which the welfare of competing horses is safeguarded.
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Houpt, K. A. (1986). Stable vices and trailer problems. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 623–633.
Abstract: Stable vices include oral vices such as cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia, as well as stall walking, weaving, pawing, and stall kicking. Some of these behaviors are escape behaviors; others are forms of self-stimulation. Most can be eliminated by pasturing rather than stall confinement. Trailering problems include failure to load, scrambling in the moving trailer, struggling in the stationary trailer, and refusal to unload. Gradual habituation to entering the trailer, the presence of another horse, or a change in trailer type can be used to treat these problems.
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Waran, N. K., Robertson, V., Cuddeford, D., Kokoszko, A., & Marlin, D. J. (1996). Effects of transporting horses facing either forwards or backwards on their behaviour and heart rate. Vet. Rec., 139(1), 7–11.
Abstract: The effects of transporting horses facing either forwards or backwards were compared by transporting six thoroughbred horses in pairs in a lorry on one journey facing in the direction of travel, and on another journey facing away from the direction of travel, over a standard one-hour route. Heart rate monitors were used to record their heart rate before, during and after the journey and the horses' behaviour was recorded by scan sampling each horse every other minute. The average heart rate was significantly lower (P < 0.05) when the horses were transported facing backwards, and they also tended to rest on their rumps more (P = 0.059). In the forward-facing position, the horses moved more frequently (P < 0.05) and tended to hold their necks in a higher than normal position and to vocalise more frequently (P = 0.059). During loading the average peak heart rate was 38 bpm lower (P < 0.05) when the horses were backed into the horse box for rear-facing transport than when they were loaded facing forwards. However, there was no difference between transport facing forwards or backwards in terms of the peak unloading heart rate, or the average heart rate during loading or unloading. The horses seemed to find being transported less physically stressful when they were facing backwards than when they were facing forwards.
Keywords: Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Female; *Heart Rate; *Horses; Male; Posture/*physiology; *Transportation
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