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Mader, D. R., & Price, E. O. (1980). Discrimination learning in horses: effects of breed, age and social dominance. J. Anim Sci., 50(5), 962–965.
Abstract: The discrimination learning ability of Quarter Horses and Thoroughbreds was compared by means of visual cues in a three-choice test with food as a reward. Quarter Horses learned significantly faster than Thoroughbreds, and learning progressed more rapidly for both breeds in a second discrimination task. Significant negative correlations were observed between age and rate of learning. Quarter Horses tended to be less reactive than Thoroughbreds, but individual emotional reactivity ratings and learning scores were not correlated. No correlation was found between social dominance and learning scores. Learning studies with horses may provide a better understanding of the behavioral traits that influence trainability in this species.
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Alexander, F. (1978). The effect of some anti-diarrhoeal drugs on intestinal transit and faecal excretion of water and electrolytes in the horse. Equine Vet J, 10(4), 229–234.
Abstract: The effect of morphine, Tinct. opii, loperamide, pethidine and atropine on intestinal transit and the faecal and urinary excretion of water and electrolytes was studied in ponies. The rate of passage of a particulate marker was slowed by morphine, hastened then slowed by loperamide and Tinct. opii, and hastened by atropine. The liquid marker was slowed by Tinct. opii and hastened then slowed by the other drugs. Only loperamide decreased the faecal sodium excretion. This drug also decreased faecal water and weight; it appeared worthy of clinical trial in diarrhoea. Tinct. opii decreased by morphine, pethidine and atropine increased faecal water.
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Boice, R. (1981). Behavioral comparability of wild and domesticated rats. Behav Genet, 11(5), 545–553.
Abstract: The oft-repeated concern for the lack of behavioral comparability of domestic rats with wild forms of Rattus norvegicus is unfounded. Laboratory rats appear to show the potential for all wild-type behaviors, including the most dramatic social postures. Moreover, domestics are capable of assuming a feral existence without difficulty, one where they readily behave in a fashion indistinguishable from wild rats. The one behavioral difference that is clearly established concerns performance in laboratory learning paradigms. The superiority of domestics in these laboratory tasks speaks more to quieting the concerns of degeneracy theorists than to problems of using domestic Norway rats as subjects representative of their species.
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Heird, J. C., Lennon, A. M., & Bell, R. W. (1981). Effects of early experience on the learning ability of yearling horses. J. Anim Sci., 53(5), 1204–1209.
Abstract: Twenty-four yearling Quarter Horse fillies were divided into three groups (I) very limited handling, (II) intermediate handling and (III) extensive handling. At about 14 months of age, each horse was preconditioned for 2 weeks and then run in a simple place-learning T-maze test in which it had to locate its feed. Thirty trials were run daily for 20 days, with the location of the feed changed each day. To retire from the maze, a horse had to meet the criterion: 11 correct responses in 12 tries, with the last eight being consecutive. Horses in Group II required the fewest trials to reach criterion. These horses also learned more and had the highest percentage of correct responses (P less than .05). Mean trainability tended to predict learning ability; however, trainability and trials to criterion were not significantly correlated. Mean emotionality scores indicated a tendency for horses in the intermediately handled group to be less emotional than those in Group I or III. Results indicated that horses with an intermediate amount of handling scored higher on an intermediate test of learning. All handled horses scored higher on learning tests than those not handled.
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Cambefort, J. P. (1981). A comparative study of culturally transmitted patterns of feeding habits in the chacma baboon Papio ursinus and the vervet monkey Cercopithecus aethiops. Folia Primatol (Basel), 36(3-4), 243–263.
Abstract: Japanese workers have studied social acquisition patterns of new feeding habits in Macaca fuscata which they have termed precultural. The present study investigates the same phenomenon in the chacma baboon and the vervet monkey in their natural habitat. The questions addressed are: (1) How a new feeding habit enters a troop and by which age and sex category, also how it is propagated? (2) When individuals are permitted with a choice between palatable and unpalatable food, can they learn by demonstration only or do they have to pass through a direct learning process? (3) Can the results from the above questions be explained by social parameters such as the social structure of the individual species? It was found that juvenile baboons discover new food and that after the discovery propagation is instantaneous. In vervets discovery is random among the age classes and propagation is slow and takes place through certain 'pivot' individuals. Both species fail to learn about palatability by demonstration but have to go through a direct learning process. This contrasts strongly with the forest baboon Mandrillus sphinx that have been shown to learn by demonstration. Socially, baboon juveniles stay closer to each other than the adults who force them to live at the periphery of the troop. Vervets again forage without precise sub-group formation. The link between social and cultural propagation and social structure is discussed on the basis of these findings.
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Zentall, S. S., Zentall, T. R., & Barack, R. C. (1978). Distraction as a function of within-task stimulation for hyperactive and normal children. J Learn Disabil, 11(9), 540–548.
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Hoff, M. P., Nadler, R. D., & Maple, T. L. (1981). Development of infant independence in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Dev Psychobiol, 14(3), 251–265.
Abstract: In March 1976, 3 lowlands gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) were born to primiparous females living with an adult male in a large compound at the field station of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center of Emory University. Observations of parent and infant behavior began at the birth of the infants, using several methods of data collection. This report focuses on the development of independence in these infants over the 1st 1 1/2 years of life. As expected, measures of mother-infant contact and proximity decreased with age. Several measures suggested that infant independence developed as an interactive process between mothers and infants, with primary responsibility changing over the months of study. Maternal behaviors that served to maintain mother-infant contact were found to decrease with age, with an eventual shift to infant responsibility for contact maintenance. Additionally, the adult male appeared to influence developing independence as reflected in the maternal protectiveness evoked by his behavior.
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Bernstein, I. S., & Dobrofsky, M. (1981). Compensatory social responses of older pigtailed monkeys to maternal separation. Dev Psychobiol, 14(2), 163–168.
Abstract: Thirteen 3-5-year-old pigtailed monkeys were subjected to five 2-hr maternal separations while remaining in their normal social group. Significant changes in activity profiles were noted during separation and reunion phases. This suggests the continued social dependence of older offspring upon the matriarch. The shift in social activities reflected attempts by the juvenile and adolescent subjects to compensate for maternal absence by intensification of other affiliative social behavior and avoidance of potentially socially disruptive situation. The subjects oriented more towards kin in the absence of the matriarch, but actual time with kin decreased. Upon the return of the matriarch, the intensified some responses depressed during her absence and returned to preseparation social relationships. Play and aggressive responses declined whereas social approaches increased during maternal absences. Submissive responses declined upon the return of the matriarch, and play increased. The subjects also showed a marked, temporary increase of direct interaction, largely sniffing and grooming, with the matriarch upon her return.
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Houpt, K. A., & Wolski, T. R. (1980). Stability of equine hierarchies and the prevention of dominance related aggression. Equine Vet J, 12(1), 15–18.
Abstract: The dominance hierarchy of a herd of 10 Thoroughbred mares was determined twice, at an interval of 18 months, using paired feeding tests. Each mare's rank was correlated significantly between the 2 tests. This indicated that the hierarchy within the herd was stable. The offspring of dominant and subordinate mares were also tested for dominance in their own age groups. The offspring of dominant mares tended to be near the top of the hierarchy while those of middle and low ranking mares were not consistently found in the middle or bottom of their own hierarchies. Paired feeding tests were carried out on 8 ponies. During tests the time that each pony spent eating and the ponies' aggressive interactions were recorded. Two situations were used. Each pony-pair was tested when both ponies were in the same paddock and also when they were separated by a rail fence. The subordinate ponies spent significantly more time eating and the domonant pony was significantly less aggressive, when the pony-pair was separated by a fence than when they were in one paddock. It was concluded that the dominance hierarchies of adult horse groups changed very little over time and that the foals of dominant mares will tend to be dominant in their own age groups. Management practices can be used to reduce aggression and consequent injury that may arise in group feeding situations.
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Houpt, K. A., Parsons, M. S., & Hintz, H. F. (1982). Learning ability of orphan foals, of normal foals and of their mothers. J. Anim Sci., 55(5), 1027–1032.
Abstract: The maze learning ability of six pony foals that had been weaned at birth was compared to that of six foals reared normally. The foals' learning ability was also compared to their mothers' learning ability at the same task; the correct turn in a single choice point maze. The maze learning test was conducted when the foals were 6 to 8 mo old and after the mothered foals had been weaned. There was no significant difference between the ability of orphaned (weaned at birth) and mothered foals in their ability to learn to turn left (6 +/- .7 and 5.1 +/- .1 trials, respectively) or to learn the reversal, to turn right (6.7 +/- .6 and 6.2 +/- .6 trials, respectively). The orphan foals spent significantly more time in the maze in their first exposure to it than the mothered foals (184 +/- 42 vs 55 +/- 15 s. Mann Whitney U = 7, P less than .05). The mothers of the foals (n = 11) learned to turn left as rapidly as the foals (5.9 +/- .7 trials), but they were slower to learn to turn right (9.8 +/- 1.4 vs 6.4 +/- .4 trials, Mann Whitney U = 33, P less than .05), indicating that the younger horses learned more rapidly. There was no correlation between the trials to criteria of the mare and those of her foal, but there was a significant negative correlation between rank in trials to criteria and age (r = -65, P less than .05) when data from the mare and foal trials were combined. The dominance hierarchy of the mares was determined using a paired feeding test in which two horses competed for one bucket of feed. Although there was no correlation between rank in the hierarchy and maze learning ability, there was a correlation between body weight and rank in the hierarchy (r = .7, P less than .05). This may indicate either that heavier horses are likely to be dominant or that horses high in dominance gain more weight. Maternal deprivation did not appear to seriously retard learning of a simple maze by foals, although the orphans moved more slowly initially. The lack of maternal influence on learning is also reflected in the lack of correlation between the mare's learning ability and that of her foal. Young horses appear to learn more rapidly than older horses.
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