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Connor, R. C., Smokler, R. A., & Richards, A. F. (1992). Dolphin alliances and coalitions. In A. H. Harcourt, & F. B. M. de Waal (Eds.), Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals (pp. 415–443). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Noë, R. (1992). Alliance formation among male hamadryas baboons: shopping for profitable partners. In A. H. Harcourt, & F. B. M. deWaal (Eds.), Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals (pp. 284–321). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Harcourt, A. H. (1992). Coalitions and alliances: are primates more complex than non-primates? In A. H. Harcourt, & F. B. M. de Waal (Eds.), Coalitions and alliances in humans and other animals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Whiten, A., & Ham, R. (1992). On the nature and evolution of imitation in the animal kingdom: reappraisal of a century of research. Adv. Study Behav., 21, 239–283.
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Covalesky, M. E., Russoniello, C. R., & Malinowski, K. (1992). Effects of show-jumping performance stress on plasma cortisol and lactate concentrations and heart rate and behavior in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 12(4), 244–251.
Abstract: Summary Effects of show jumping competition on stress levels in horses was examined. Twenty-six homes were sampled in both show and farm environments from three levels of show experience schooling, (least experience, n=11); intermediate, (moderate experience, n=6); open, (most experience, n=9). Blood samples were taken at 6 time points; 3 at the horse show and 3 at the home farm (baseline at rest, pre-schooling and post-performance over a jump course). Stress responses were assessed through comparison of the behavioral response of the horses (determined by a subjective scoring system) to plasma cortisol (F) concentrations. Physical exertion was evaluated by heart rate (HR) and plasma lactate (L) concentrations. Schooling jumpers displayed higher baseline F concentrations than open jumpers (83g±9.2 vs 46.4±10.2 ng/ml, respectively; p<.05); but not when compared to intermediate jumpers (66.2 ± 13.7 ng/ml; p>.05) at the horse show. At the farm, there were no differences in F concentrations between experience levels at a time point (p<.05). Least experienced horses displayed higher F values at rest at the show compared to the home farm. At the show, open jumpers had higher L concentrations post-exercise compared to intermediate horses (40.3±3.4 vs 25.5±4.0 mg/dL, respectively; p<.05); but were not different compared to schooling jumpers (34.8±2.0 mg/dL; p>.05). There were no differences in heart rates or behavior score between experience levels at specific time points at either the show or farm (p>.05). Low positive correlations were found between HR and F (r=.24, p<.05); HR and L (r-.48, p<.05); and HR and behavior (r=.22, p<.05). Results suggest that conditioned jumpers that have previously been exposed to horse show environments do not appear stressed during acute show-jumping competition.
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Aureli, F., Cossolino, R., Cordischi, C., & Scucchi, S. (1992). Kin-oriented redirection among Japanese macaques: an expression of a revenge system? Anim. Behav., 44(2), 283–291.
Abstract: The ability to recognize the close associates of other group members may permit the display of redirected aggression against the relatives of the former aggressor. However, the dominance structure and the kin-based alliance system of macaque society are expected not to favour the occurrence of this kin-oriented redirection. Nevertheless, within 1 h of being the victim of an attack, Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata, were more likely to attack the former aggressor's kin than without such a conflict. The conditions under which the victim redirected against the former aggressor's kin were investigated. This kin-oriented redirection did not occur preferentially either after conflicts between individuals with unstable and/or uncertain dominance relationships or after conflicts with individuals that were unlikely to intervene in favour of their kin. Victims redirected against individuals that were younger than the former aggressor and often subordinate to the victim. They also redirected in an opportunistic way by joining polyadic interactions against the former aggressor's kin. The possibility that this kin-oriented redirection may have a long-term function in changing the aggressive attitude of the aggressor towards the victim is also discussed. In addition, the victim's kin also displayed a form of kin-oriented redirection. They were more likely to attack the kin of an individual after it had attacked their own kin.
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Manson, J. H. (1992). Measuring female mate choice in Cayo Santiago rhesus macaques. Anim. Behav., 44, 405–416.
Abstract: Few studies of female mate choice have been carried out among free-ranging non-human primates. To qualify as female mate choice, behaviour by oestrous females must predict the occurrence or rate of potentially fertile copulations, in comparisons between heterosexual dyads. In this paper, data are presented to show three behaviour patterns that meet this criterion in free-ranging rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta, at the island colony of Cayo Santiago: (1) selective cooperation with male sexual solicitations (hip-grasps), (2) restoration of proximity following attacks on females by intruding males, and (3) proximity maintenance (in one of two study groups). Oestrous females maintained proximity preferentially to lower ranking males, but this appeared to reflect differences in the tactics necessary to achieve copulations with males of different dominance ranks, rather than preference for lower ranking mates. Male-oestrous female dyads showed consistency over two consecutive mating seasons in which partner was responsible for proximity maintenance. Male dominance rank was positively correlated with copulatory rate with fertile females. However, in one study group, males to whom oestrous females maintained proximity more actively had higher copulatory rates with fertile females, independent of the effects of male dominance rank.
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Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1992). Punishment allows the evolution of cooperation (or anything else) in sizable groups. Ethol. Sociobiol., 13, 171–195.
Abstract: Existing models suggest that reciprocity is unlikely to evolve in large groups as a result of natural selection. In these models, reciprocators punish noncooperation by with-holding future cooperation, and thus also penalize other cooperators in the group. Here, we analyze a model in which the response is some form of punishment that is directed solely at noncooperators. We refer to such alternative forms of punishment as retribution. We show that cooperation enforced by retribution can lead to the evolution of cooperation in two qualitatively different ways. (1) If benefits of cooperation to an individual are greater than the costs to a single individual of coercing the other n − 1 individuals to cooperate, then strategies which cooperate and punish noncooperators, strategies which cooperate only if punished, and, sometimes, strategies which cooperate but do not punish will coexist in the long run. (2) If the costs of being punished are large enough, moralistic strategies which cooperate, punish noncooperators, and punish those who do not punish noncooperators can be evolutionarily stable. We also show, however, that moralistic strategies can cause any individually costly behavior to be evolutionarily stable, whether or not it creates a group benefit.
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Dugatkin, L. A., Mesterton-Gibbons, M., & Houston, A. I. (1992). Beyond the prisoner's dilemma: Toward models to discriminate among mechanisms of cooperation in nature. Trends Evol. Ecol., 7, 202–205.
Abstract: The iterated prisoner's dilemma game, or IPD, has now established itself as the orthodox paradigm for theoretical investigations of the evolution of cooperation; but its scope is restricted to reciprocity, which is only one of three categories of cooperation among unrelated individuals. Even within that category, a cooperative encounter has in general three phases, and the IPD has nothing to say about two of them. To distinguish among mechanisms of cooperation in nature, future theoretical work on the evolution of cooperation must distance itself from economics and develop games as a refinement of ethology's comparative approach.
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Nowak, M. A., & Sigmund, K. (1992). Tit for tat in heterogeneous populations. Nature, 355, 250–253.
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