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Baragli, P., Cozzi, A., Rugani, R., Sighieria, C., & Regolin, L. (2008). Delayed search for non-social goals by Equids (Equus caballus and Equus asinus). In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Delayed-responses have been traditionally employed to investigate the temporal characteristics of animals“ ability to represent and recall objects that have disappeared. In the typical condition, the animal, usually a mammal, observes the experimenter hiding an interesting goal (e.g. some food) in a certain location. A delayed-response task (DRT) was administered to 4 female Esperia pony (2 years old) coming from a free-range breed (Frosinone, Italy) and to 7 female Amiata donkeys (4.2±2 years old) coming from a conservation stock (University of Pisa, Italy). The DRT's apparatus was located in a square fence. A single ”U-shaped“ screen (330x160x140 cm) made by wood shavings blocks was positioned in the centre of the fence. A gap (40x50 cm) on the ground was in the middle of the central side of the U-shaped-screen and served to make the food-attractor disappear. The food-attractor consisted in cereal flakes and fresh grass for ponies and cereal flakes for donkeys. A bucket full of food was placed on a dolly tied on a rope which could be pulled by an experimenter. In a preliminary training each animal was allowed to eat food from the bucket and, while the animal was eating, the dolly was gently pulled away from the animal, and beyond the screen through the gap. The subjects needed to move around of the screen in order to retrieve the food. As a reinforcement, they were allowed to eat some food from the bucket once behind the screen. From trial to trial, the bucket was presented farther and farther (starting with a distance of 1 m in front of the screen to reach 7 m). Therefore subjects were tested in the DRT requiring them to rejoin the bucket with the goal-food disappearing behind the screen as in the preliminary training but following a 10 s delay. For the DRT, the bucket was placed 7 m in front of the screen, 3 m away from the animal's starting area. Then the dolly was pulled away from the animal. Ten seconds after the disappearance of the dolly behind the screen the animal was released from the starting area. The DRT ended when the subject had reached the attractor behind the screen on 3 consecutive trials. Results showed that all animals were able to rejoin the food behind the screen after 10 s delay. The mean time of the delayed-response (mean±sd, in s) in the ponies (1st: 19.8±8; 2nd: 10.8±2.2; 3rd: 12.8±2.8) and in the donkeys (1st: 28.4±10; 2nd: 26.9±13; 3rd: 24.3±16.6) showed a trend to decrease from first trial to third. These preliminary results suggest that like other mammals our ponies and donkeys can maintain a working memory trace of the location where biologically attractive objects have been seen to disappear. In conclusion, this study paves the way to set up a viable model system for the investigation of the more sophisticated aspects of Equids” cognitive abilities such as working memory.
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Søndergaard, E., & Turner, K. C. (2008). Timeframe for a novel horse to become familiar in a group. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: The case of familiarity in equine husbandry is not a topic that has suffered vast amounts of examination. During their lifetime domestic horses will most likely experience multiple changes in their social environment such as being sold, moved, and sent to training amongst other things. In recent years a considerable amount of studies have shown the benefits of group-housing on horses, and familiarity timeframes are of genuine importance in management of such systems.
It is our intension to determine the timeframe a novel horse faces before it is recognized as being familiar in an already established group, what factors are of importance and the level of injuries sustained in the introduction period.
24 2-year old Danish Warmblood fillies were used for this study in two blocks of 12 horses. The familiar horses, titled the K-group, consisted of 16 horses and the U-group, the unfamiliar horses, of 8. The horses came from different studs to ensure no prior contact between the two groups of test animals. They were all raised in stable group-housing systems and thereby accustomed to social interactions between conspecifics.
Prior to pairing the K-horses up, nearest-neighbour observations was performed in the holding paddock to ensure the two horses were in fact familiar and would act as an established group.
8 groups of 3 individuals, 2 familiar and 1 unfamiliar, were held in separate paddocks measuring 80x80m. The horses were within eyesight of the other groups but were not able to have any physical contact.
Behavioural observations were performed for 20 minutes per group upon letting the U-horse enter, and then for one hour per group (3x20mins) every Monday, Wednesday and Friday the following 16 days. On day 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 they were tested for individual preference within the group, and on test day 1 and 16 any injuries sustained were also noted. Dominance rank within the groups was determined by a group-feeding test on the last day of observation.
Preliminary results from the first block indicate an overall timeframe of 6-7 days for familiarity to develop, established by observational data such as fading of greeting behaviour and decrease in distance between the three horses in the respective groups. It was also indicated that aggression between horses in the groups is not determined by familiarity but by dominance rank.
Results from the full experiment will be presented.
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Streit,, S., Zeitler-Feicht, M. H., & Dempfle, L. (2008). Automatic feeding systems versus feeding stalls for horses kept in groups: visiting frequency, stress situations and risk of injury. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: When keeping horses in run-out sheds, feeding stalls are usually recommended for individual feeding; which allows equine typical simultaneous eating. However, automatic feeding devices for hay and concentrates are being increasingly used, and these do not allow simultaneous eating. This research aims to compare visiting frequency, stress situations, and the risk of injury, in the area of automatic feeding systems with those at feeding stalls. The studies were carried out at 10 stables with feeding stalls and at 11 with automatic feeding systems for hay and concentrates. These stables were otherwise similar regarding the keeping of the horses and the management of the facilities. Each group consisted of 8 to 21 horses, with 260 horses taking part in total. Every group was observed for 6 sessions, each of 4 hours. These 6 sessions together made 24 hours, a complete day.
Horses in stables with feeding stalls visited the feeding area (waiting area, the station, exit area) 45.5 ± 27.3 times on average in 24 hours, and in stables with automatic feeders for hay and concentrates, 93.1 ± 53.5 times. This difference was significant. Threatening behaviour, without risk of injury or with risk of injury, occurred significantly more frequently in stables with automatic feeders (9.6 ± 12.9 times and 4.2 ± 5.5 times respectively per 24 hours and horse) than in stables with feeding stalls (6.0 ± 10.4 times and 1.5 ± 3.3 times respectively per 24 hours and horse). The management of the stable, however, proved to have its most important influence on the behaviour of the horses.
Displacement activities were observed in stables with feeding stalls 0.3 ± 1.0 times per horse and 24 hours and in stables with automatic feeders for hay and concentrate 12.9 ± 23.3 times. Situations that could cause either stress or injuries to the horses occurred in stables with feeding stalls within 24 hours per horse only 3.7 ± 13.1 and 1.3 ± 4.8 times on average respectively. Such situations were to be seen in stables with automatic feeder 17.0 ± 33.4 and 8.6 ± 15.3 times respectively per horse and 24 hours – clearly more often.
We may therefore conclude that the more often the feeding area is visited, the more frequently threatening gestures without and with risk of injury occur. The same goes for the number of situations that may result in stress or injuries. Therefore to sum up it can be said that feeding in feedings stalls leads to less risk of stress and injuries compared with feeding by computer controlled systems. On the other hand, computer controlled systems have the advantage of stimulating the horses to move, which is very important for their health. While assessing this study it should be taken into account that there were very big individual differences between the horses. The result of the statistical evaluation was that the management of the stable has a decisive influence on the observed features. Therefore both feeding systems can be recommended, especially as the number of conflicts in the feeding area in all stables was relatively low and no injuries were observed in connection with the feeding.
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Komárková, M., & Dubcova, J. (2008). Factors affecting suckling behaviour in loose housed domestic horses. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Suckling, the main part of maternal investment in equids, is crucial for development and social success of the foal. As such it is of great importance in horse breeding. We examined effect of following factors mentioned in literature on behavioural parameters of suckling in loose housed domestic horses: age and sex of the suckling foal, age, parity (primiparous/multiparous), pregnancy (yes/no) and rank of the mother and sex of the foetus if the mother was pregnant. Four variables describing suckling behaviour were modelled: proportion of suckling attempts rejected by the mother, suckling duration, frequency of suckling and proportion of suckling terminated by the mother. Further, suckling terminated by another mare were analyzed. Behavioural observations were conducted at the National Stud Kladruby nad Labem (Czech Republic). Eight groups of loose housed Oldkladruby horse mares with foals were observed from 14 days (in average) after delivery to abrupt weaning (four to six months of age), each foal for 120 days at least. Within two seasons, 10 495 suckling bouts and suckling attempts were observed in 79 foals (32 males, 47 females, mothered by 59 individual mares). Horses were studied with ad libitum sampling for 6 hours per group each 14 days. Dominance status of the mother was assessed using the Clutton-Brock index (Clutton-Brock et al. 1982, Nature 350:178-180), adjusted to the number of mares in each group, and dyadic dominance-submission relationships between all group members (mares) were determined. No significant effect of pregnancy and sex of the foetus on suckling behaviour were found, except the tendency of mothers bearing female foetuses to terminate more suckling. These findings are opposite to literature, where male foetuses were connected with higher rejection rates (Duncan et al. 1984, Anim Behav 32:255-263). However, incidence of suckling attempts rejected by the mother was very low (2.24 %). No effect of pregnancy of the mother could be caused by the stud management; horses are well fed and do not suffer for nutrition stress as horses in the wild may. All variables were negatively affected by increasing foals age (as expected). Neither sex of the suckling foal, nor age of the mother did significantly affect any of the studied variables. The higher dominance rank a mare achieved the higher frequency of other group member suckling she terminated (rs = 0.49, P < 0.0001; Spearman correlation coefficients, PROC CORR, SAS). From suckling terminated by another mare (N = 190), in 93 % (N =177) it is a dominant mare who ends the suckling. Despite these significant results, suckling terminated by another mare were negligible (1.8 % from all observed suckling bouts) and agonistic interactions between dominant and submissive mares seemed not to compromise foal development. In conclusion, in loose housed mares of domestic horse with foals we have found no detrimental effect of any of literally cited factors on suckling behaviour.
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Wehnert, C., Schmidt, A., Möstl, E., Aurich, J., Müller, J., & Aurich, C. (2008). Heart rate and cortisol release in horses during road transport. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: In sport horses, equestrian competitions may lead to increased cortisol release. The competition itself but also a new environment or transport to the events can be considered as stressors. In this study, warmblood sport horses (4-16 years, 4 mares, 2 stallions, 18 geldings) were transported by road for one (t1), 3.5 (t3.5) and 8 hours (t8), (n=8 per group). Heart rate (HR) is an indicator of stress and correlates with cortisol release. Heart rate was recorded with a mobile recording system (f810i, Polar, Kempele, Finland), fixed to a girth around the thorax of the horse and was monitored the day before transport, during transport and 12 hours thereafter. In addition, cortisol metabolite concentrations in faeces were determined in order to analyse adrenocortical activation during transport. Faecal samples were collected three times per day. Cortisol metabolite concentrations in faeces are increased approximately 24 hours after an elevation in plasma cortisol concentrations. Basal HR before transport did not differ between groups (45±2 (SEM) beats/min). During the first 30 min of transport, HR increased significantly (84±6, p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis-H-test) but did not differ between groups. During the remaining part of the transport, HR was 61±6 beats/min (p<0.001 vs. first 30 min). When HR was analysed for the last 30 min of transport, values for groups t1 and t8 were significantly (p<0.05) higher than in group t3.5. HR decreased to baseline values within less than 30 min after transport and did not differ between groups (30-60 min after transport: 44±3 beats/min). Faecal cortisol metabolite concentrations on the day after transport were elevated compared to pre-transport baseline values in all three groups of horses. Significant differences existed between groups (e.g. 18 hours after transport t1: 91±5, t3.5: 110±18, t8: 136±27 ng/g; p<0.05). Based on HR analysis, horses of group t3.5 had adapted to transport, while the prolonged transport in group t8 again was a stressor. In group t1, which was transported only for one hour, the higher heart during the last 3 min of transport was still part of the initial rise in HR. After an initial increase, heart decreases indicating adaptation of the horse to transport. Cortisol metabolite concentrations in faeces indicate that transport causes adrenocortical activation with the amount of cortisol released depending on the duration of transport. Transport over medium distances appears to no major stressor and a negative impact on the performance of the horse is unlikely. Transport over 8 hours caused the most pronounced cortisol release and HR increases again during the last hours of an 8-hour transport. Transports exceeding this time may temporarily affect the subsequent performance of the horse in equestrian sports.
Supported by Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd
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Burger, D., Baumgartner, M., Schauer, S. N., Wägeli, S., Aurich, C., & Gerber, V. (2008). Influence of the recipient mare on character traits of adult offspring in a Warmblood embryo transfer program – preliminary results. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: The influence of recipient mares in commercial embryo transfer (ET) programs
on behavior of the ET foals is a matter of great interest and controversial discussion.
Presently, no interdisciplinary ethological and reproductive studies on this topic exist.
However, empirical experience suggests that behavioral traits of the recipient mare do not
influence those of the foal, thus implying a predominantly genetic origin of a horse"s basic
character. Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of recipient
mares on behavioural traits of their ET products.
Materials and Methods: Based on records of the embryo transfer program in Warmblood
horses since 1990 at the Swiss National Stud, questionnaires concerning behavior,
stereotypies and mother-foal-relationship were designed and completed by telephone
interview: 18 scientifically assessed questions provided the basis for a linear description
(Equine Personality Assessment Questionnaire, Lloyd et al., 2007). They were grouped in a)
emotivity, b) social motivation, c) general level of activity, d) stress behavior, e) learning
capacity and f) reactions towards humans. Questionnaires were designed for the owners of the
ET offspring (minimum of three years of age), the sires, donor mares and the recipient mares.
Out of 200 questionnaires, 25 complete ET families have emerged so far and were analysed.
All genetic parents were Warmblood horses, as were 23 of the recipient mares, the other two
were Franches-Montagnes horses.
Results: Comparing the mean values of the four groups (genetic dam and sire, recipient mare
and ET product), significant differences were found for the parameters emotivity (sires lower,
p<0.001), learning behaviour (recipient mares lower, p<0.05) and activity (recipient mares
lower, p<0.05). With only one exception, the multiple variable regression analysis found no
significant influence of the recipient mare on the ET product. The only significant effect
observed, was that of the social motivation of the recipient mare on the learning capacity of
the ET offspring (r2= -0.421, p<0.05). In contrast, numerous significant effects of behavioural
traits of the genetic dams and sires on their ET offspring (10 and 8, respectively) were
observed.
Conclusions: These preliminary results confirm field observations that the influence of the
recipient mare does not play an important role in character development of the ET offspring.
However, the investigated parameters indicate that the behavioural traits of the genetic parents
appear to have a strong influence on the offspring"s behaviour.. This study model promises
new achievements in the evaluation of genetic and environmental effects on the behavior of a
horse.
References
Lloyd, AS, Martin, JE, Bornett-Gauci, HLI, Wilkinson, RG (2007). Evaluation of a novel
method of horse personality asses
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De Pasquale, A., Ingala, A., Innella, G., Luigiano, G., Malara, L., & Panzera, M. (2008). The influence of the enriched environment on the reactivity of the precociously handled foals (Equus caballus L.). In IESM 2008.
Abstract: In a preliminary study, we evaluated the effect of precocious handling (at birth, 10, 30 and 60 days) and enriched environment on foal. Two experimental groups were created:
- 3 foals not handled and stabled in semi-enriched environment (Group A).
- 6 foals handled and stabled in an enriched environment (Group B).
All nine foals were tested with a novel object test (umbrella) at three months of age, to assess the Heart Rate (HR) values measured by a telemetric heart rate monitor (Polar Horse Trainer), during opening, touching and closing of the umbrella.
The statistical analysis carried out by means of the Mann-Whitney test showed lower HR values of the foals of group B (P<0.05).
Furthermore we have investigated 10 foals born between 2006 and 2008 to study the influence of enriched environment and precocious handling on behavioural responsiveness. The foals were housed on a farm which ensured an enriched environment and made social intra and interspecific interactions easier, alias autoshaping. They were submitted to:
- Handling within 24 hours from birth.
- Handling and reactivity test (arena test) executed at 10, 30 and 60 days.
The temporal correlation was studied among ages and baseline HR values, using the
Spearman"s test, to assess the beginning of neurovegetative HR control.
In fact statistically significant differences were obtained (r = -0.431; P<0,02). Temporal values of obtained HR baseline, using the Wilcoxon test, showed lower values at 60 days. The comparison was significant among mean and max baseline HR values of 30 vs 60 and 10 vs 60 (P<0.05), while no differences were observed during the reactivity test. This shows that adequate conditions of management associated to a precocious and continuous handling allow the foals to maintain their natural investigative behaviour disappearing fear and flight reactions.
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Wulf, M., Dörstelmann, V., & Aurich, C. (2008). Behavioural patterns of pony foals after simultaneous and consecutive weaning. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: In this study, the behaviour of Shetland pony foals after weaning was analysed. Foals were either weaned simultaneously (group SW; n=7) by removing all mares at the same time and leaving the foals as a group or foals were weaned consecutively (group CW; n=4) by removing one mare per day on consecutive days. Behaviour of the foals was observed 3 times per day (6:00-8:00, 12:00-14:00 and 18:00-20:00) from one day before weaning to 7 days (group SW) or 10 days (group CW) after removing the first mare. Vocalisation after removal mares was more frequent in foals weaned simultaneously (d 1: SW 66±37 per 2 hrs) than when mares were removed consecutively at one-day intervals (d1, i.e. removal of first mare: CW 3±2 per 2 hrs). In CW foals, vocalisation was most frequent on the day after removal of the last mare (day 5: 18±6 per 2 hrs), although it was lower than in SW foals on day 1 after weaning. Locomotor activity was highest in SW foals on days 1 and 2 after weaning (maximum 17±6 movements per 2 hrs, p<0.05 vs. CW: <2 movements per 2 hrs at all times). Frequency of defaecation increased to 7±1 per 2 hrs on day 1 after SW (p<0.05 vs. group CW), it was 3±2 per 2 hrs in group CW at the time 3 mares had been removed and was below 2 at all other times in both groups. The time, foals spent in lateral recumbency and in sternal recumbency was reduced to near zero during the two days following weaning (group SW) and the period during which mares were removed consecutively (group CW). Tactile contact between foals was increased in SW foals after weaning compared to CW foals during the period of consecutive weaning. Suckling on other foals increased in both groups for several days after weaning but did not differ between groups. No major changes over time or differences between groups were found for other behaviour parameters. Foals weaned simultaneously lost weight slightly but significantly (p<0.05) within two days after weaning (from 78±11 to 75±10) while no weight loss occurred in CW foals. In conclusion, SW elicited more pronounced behavioural changes than CW in pony foals. Consecutive weaning can be considered a more gentle method than SW and thus may be associated with lower risks and less stress for the foals.
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Jørgensen, G. H. M., Borsheim, L., Mejdell, C. M., & Bøe, K. E. (2008). Social interactions and spacing in horses (Equus caballus) grouped according to gender. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the social behaviour and spacing between horses when grouped according to gender in homogeneous- or heterogeneous groups, and to see if the amount and severity of aggression differed in relation to gender composition.
A total of 66 horses divided in six batches were used. In each batch, horses were allotted into one mare group, one gelding group and one mixed gender group, with most groups consisting of three or four animals. Three batches were performed on Icelandic horses and three batches on riding horses and -ponies. After 4-6 weeks of acclimatisation, a trained observer recorded all social interactions using direct, continuous observation one hour in the morning and one hour in the afternoon for three consecutive days. In addition, the nearest neighbour of each horse was recorded using instantaneous sampling every 10 minutes. The horses were inspected for injuries before grouping, day one after grouping and after 4-6 weeks. Furthermore, a novel object test and a handling test (taking horse out of group) were conducted after the behavioural observations were completed.
No significant effect of gender composition was found on social interactions, spacing or injuries. Most of the aggressive interactions recorded were threats, and not aggressive interactions involving physical contact. Aggression seemed to increase with decreased space per animal and more horses per feeding place. Very few injuries were found and most were superficial. Horses showed a low degree of fearfulness in the novel object test and most horses were easy to handle in the “horse out of group test”.
In conclusion, gender composition does not seem to have any effect on aggression level, spacing or injuries in social groups of horses.
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Kaczensky, P., Ganbaatar, O., von Wehrden, H., & Walzer, C. (2008). Przewalski`s horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) and Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus): Similar Species, Same Habitat – Same Use? In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Historic overlap zones of wild equids were small in Africa but extensive for Przewalski`s horses and Asiatic wild asses in Asia. Currently the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area in SW Mongolia is the only place where sympatric, free-ranging populations of these equids occur. This provides an unique opportunity to examine the co-existence of these little studied species and test the hypothesis that Przewalski`s horses are primarily adapted to mesic steppe habitats, whereas Asiatic wild asses are adapted to arid desert steppes and semi-deserts.
We monitored 9 Przewalski`s horses and 7 wild asses with satellite telemetry and superimposed the data on a habitat map derived from remote sensing (LANDSAT TM & ETM+-data) and ground sample plots. We tested for habitat preferences comparing use and availability with a logistic regression mixed model approach. Individuals were treated as random factors. Factor variables were tested for significant differences in subsequent Tukey post-hoc tests. Przewalski`s horses had non-exclusive home ranges of 152-826 km² and heavily selected for the most productive riparian plant communities. Asiatic wild asses also had non-exclusive home ranges, but with 4,449-6,835 km² they were 10 times larger than those of Przewalski`s horses. Asiatic wild asses seem to use plant communities more or less relative to their availability. Our results provide evidence for two parallel resource selection strategies. Our findings indicate that the Gobi areas provide an edge, rather than an optimal habitat for Przewalski`s horses. This leaves only small and isolated pockets of suitable habitat for future re-introductions. Asiatic wild asses, on the other hand, need access to large tracts of land to cope with the unpredictable resource distribution of the Gobi. Thus, Asiatic wild ass conservation requires a large scale approach.
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