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	Author	Werner, C. W.; Rehkämper, G.
	Title	Discrimination of multidimensional geometrical figures by chickens: categorization and pattern-learning			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	2	Issue	1	Pages	27-40
	Keywords	Domestic chicken – Integral compound – figures – Multidimensional stimulus discrimination
	Abstract	Japanese bantam hens were trained to discriminate between geometrical figures varying along four integral dimensions. Only one dimension predicted food: selections of sharp-cornered figures were reinforced, while selections of rounded figures were not. In experiment 1, hens were subsequently trained to discriminate between nine figure pairs in a simultaneous discrimination task. Because single pairs contained multiple redundant cues, whereas the relevant dimension was obvious only across stimulus pairs, the results revealed effects of both generalization and reversal learning. Accordingly, learning speed was enhanced for later discriminations. Experiment 2 tested the hens“ transfer performance to unknown pairs, following experience of 9 or 18 figure pairs. Four of seven hens showed reliable transfer after experience with 9 figures, but only three showed transfer after experience with 18 figures, indicating lower transfer with higher number of stimulus pairs learned. In experiment 3, hens were trained to discriminate 27 figure pairs. Discrimination ratios further decreased and the groups of pairs differed significantly in their ratios of discrimination. Individual hens” pecking behaviour was analysed in relation to each dimension of single figures and in relation to relative differences in the levels of dimensions between paired figures. Hens were shown to be oriented towards irrelevant information and more towards relational and configurational than elemental and dimensional aspects. The results are discussed in the biological context of individual recognition in chickens" dominance hierarchies, in which we suppose that chickens identify individual flock mates by representation of their visual pattern rather than by single characteristics.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
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	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3359
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	Author	Flannery, B.
	Title	Relational discrimination learning in horses			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1997	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	54	Issue	4	Pages	267-280
	Keywords	Horses; Shaping; Complex discrimination; Concept formation; Generalization ability; Training
	Abstract	This series of studies investigated horses' ability to learn the concept of sameness under several different conditions. Before experimentation began, three horses were shaped to touch individually presented stimuli with their muzzles, and then to make two responses to two matching cards from an array of three. A modified version of the identity matching-to-sample (IMTS) procedure was used to present stimuli in a variety of configural arrangements on a barn wall (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), and on a flat panel mounted to a barn door (Experiment 3). The task in each experiment was to select the two stimulus cards that were the same (either circles or Xs) and to avoid the nonmatching stimulus card (either a star or a square). In Experiment 1, the mean accuracy rate for selecting the matching alternatives was 74%. The horses' accuracy levels reached a mean level of 83% during Experiment 2, in which they received additional trials and an intermittent secondary reinforcement schedule. In Experiment 3, when the stimuli were moved further apart from each other within arrangements and were presented on a novel background, the mean accuracy rate was 73%. These data demonstrate that horses can learn complex discrimination problems involving the concept of sameness, and that they are able to generalize this learning to a novel stimulus presentation situation. These results also suggest that a relational discrimination test may be useful for assessing horses' learning ability and the level of training appropriate for individual horses.
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	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3557
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	Author	Langbein, J.; Siebert, K.; Nuernberg, G.; Manteuffel, G.
	Title	The impact of acoustical secondary reinforcement during shape discrimination learning of dwarf goats (Capra hircus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	103	Issue	1-2	Pages	35-44
	Keywords	Dwarf goats; Operant conditioning; Visual discrimination learning; Secondary reinforcement
	Abstract	The use of secondary reinforcement is widely accepted to support operant learning in animals. In farm animals, however, the efficacy of secondary reinforcement has up to now been studied systematically only in horses (“clicker training”), and the results are controversial. We investigated the impact of acoustical secondary reinforcement on voluntary, self-controlled visual discrimination learning of two-dimensional shapes in group-housed dwarf goats (Capra hircus). Learning tests were conducted applying a computer-controlled learning device that was integrated in the animals' home pen. Shapes were presented on a TFT-screen using a four-choice design. Drinking water was used as primary reinforcement. In the control group (Gcontrol, n = 5) animals received only primary reinforcement, whereas in the sound group (Gsound, n = 6) animals got additional acoustical secondary reinforcement. Testing recall of shapes which had been successfully learned by the goats 6 weeks earlier (T1), we found a weak impact of secondary reinforcement on daily learning success (P = 0.07), but not on the number of trials the animals needed to reach the learning criterion (trials to criterion, n.s.). Results in T1 indicated that dwarf goats did not instantly recall previously learned shapes, but, re-learned within 250-450 trials. When learning a set of new shapes (T2), there was a strong influence of secondary reinforcement on daily learning success and on trials to criterion. Animals in Gsound reached the learning criterion earlier (P < 0.05) and needed fewer trials (1320 versus 3700; P < 0.01), compared to animals in Gcontrol. Results suggest that acoustical secondary reinforcement supports visual discrimination learning of dwarf goats, especially when the task is new and the salience of S+ is low.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3583
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	Author	McCall, C.A.; Salters, M.A.; Johnson, K.B.; Silverman, S.J.; McElhenney, W.H.; Lishak, R.S.
	Title	Equine utilization of a previously learned visual stimulus to solve a novel task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	82	Issue	3	Pages	163-172
	Keywords	Horse; Learned stimulus; Novel task; Discrimination
	Abstract	Forty-four horses were used to determine if a learned stimulus could be used to increase acquisition of a response unrelated to the original learned task. Horses were paired by age, breed and sex. One randomly chosen horse from each pair served as the control while the remaining horse was trained to respond to a visual stimulus by pushing a lever to obtain a food reward. In Experiment I (n=28), the food reward was delivered in a feed box located equidistant between two levers located 2.7 m apart on one wall of the test stall. Trained horses were given 30 training trials daily until they achieved at least 85% correct responses in three nonconsecutive days. After each trained horse reached criterion, both horses in the pair were tested in 30 trials daily for five consecutive days in a modified Y maze. The stimulus that indicated the correct lever in the initial training task was used to signify the correct arm of the maze for both the control and trained horses. The correct arm of the maze was changed randomly during each daily session, and correct choices resulted in a food reward. In Experiment II (n=16), levers were located on opposite walls (11 m apart) of the test stall, and the stimulus and modified Y maze were simplified. Trained horses received 15 training trials daily until they reached at least 85% correct responses on three consecutive days. As each trained horse achieved this criterion, both horses in the pair were tested in a maze for 15 trials daily for 7 days. Again, the stimulus from initial lever-pressing task was used to signify the rewarded arm of the maze. Correct choices of trained and control horses in both experiments were compared using a paired t-test. In Experiment I, no differences (P>0.34) in mean correct responses were detected between trained and control horses on the first day in the maze (15.3 and 16.8, respectively) or after 5 days in the maze (84.0 and 82.1, respectively). Similarly, in Experiment II, trained and control horses did not differ (P>0.50) in mean correct responses on the first day (6.9 and 7.4, respectively) or after 7 days in the maze (63.6 and 61.6, respectively). These results indicate that the stimuli used to solve the lever-pressing task were not utilized by horses in the maze task, and that horses may have difficulty transferring learned visual stimuli to new tasks.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3587
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	Author	Poling, A.; Temple, W.; Foster, T.M.
	Title	The differential outcomes effect: A demonstration in domestic chickens responding under a titrating-delayed-matching-to-sample procedure			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1996	Publication	Behavioural Processes	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Process.
	Volume	36	Issue	2	Pages	109-115
	Keywords	Domestic hen; Titrating-delayed-matching-to-sample procedure; Differential outcomes effect; Conditional discrimination; Animal welfare
	Abstract	The differential outcomes effect refers to the increase in speed of acquisition or terminal accuracy that occurs in discrimination training when each of two or more discriminative stimuli is correlated with a different outcome (e.g. type of reinforcer). The present study demonstrated this effect in domestic hens exposed to a titrating-delayed-matching-to-sample procedure, under which correct responses increased (and incorrect responses decreased) the delay between the offset of a sample stimulus and the onset of two comparison stimuli. Colors of key illumination (red, green) were used as sample and comparison stimuli and correct responses resulted in 1- or 4-s food deliveries. When 1-s food deliveries consistently followed correct responses to one key color and 4-s food deliveries followed correct responses to the other key color, the maximum delay reached by the hens and their overall accuracy was significantly higher than when 1- and 4-s food deliveries were randomly arranged following correct responses to both key colors. These data constitute the first demonstration of the differential outcomes effect in chickens, and in any species evaluated under a titrating-delayed-matching-to-sample procedure.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3604
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	Author	Péron, F.; Ward, R.; Burman, O.
	Title	Horses (Equus caballus) discriminate body odour cues from conspecifics			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2013	Publication		Abbreviated Journal	Animal Cognition
	Volume		Issue		Pages	1-5
	Keywords	Body odour; Discrimination; Equus caballus; Habituation; Social memory
	Abstract	Knowledge about social recognition and memory in animals can help us to determine appropriate management and husbandry techniques. In this study, we used a habituation–discrimination procedure to investigate the ability of horses (Equus caballus) to distinguish between the body odour samples of unfamiliar conspecifics. To pick up body odour, we rubbed material on the coat of horses and presented these unknown body odours to 16 different conspecifics of the same sex and similar age. The test consisted of two successive two-min presentations of a sample from one individual (e.g. individual ‘A’) and a simultaneous presentation of samples from individual ‘A’ and a novel individual (e.g. individual ‘B’) during a final third presentation. The results showed that horses, regardless of sex, decreased the time they spent investigating conspecific body odour across the initial two presentations—demonstrating habituation. In the final presentation, the results demonstrated successful discrimination of the previously experienced odour because horses investigated the novel olfactory sample (‘B’) significantly more than the pre-exposed sample (‘A’). Taken together, these findings suggest, for the first time, that horses are able to discriminate two stimuli derived from body odours of unfamiliar conspecifics over short period of time.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Springer Berlin Heidelberg	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5742
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	Author	Lingle, S.; Rendall, D.; Wilson, W.F.; DeYoung, R.W.; Pellis, S.M.
	Title	Altruism and recognition in the antipredator defence of deer: 2. Why mule deer help nonoffspring fawns			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	5	Pages	907-916
	Keywords	aggressive defence; altruism; behavioural discrimination; cooperation; motivational constraint; mule deer; Odocoileus hemionus; Odocoileus virginianus; recognition error; white-tailed deer
	Abstract	Both white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, and mule deer, O. hemionus, females defend fawns against coyotes, Canis latrans, but only mule deer defend nonoffspring conspecific and heterospecific fawns. During a predator attack, females may have to decide whether to defend a fawn while having imperfect information on its identity obtained from hearing a few distress calls. Although imperfect recognition can influence altruistic behaviour, few empirical studies have considered this point when testing functional explanations for altruism. We designed a series of playback experiments with fawn distress calls to test alternative hypotheses (by-product of parental care, kin selection, reciprocal altruism) for the mule deer's defence of nonoffspring, specifically allowing for the possibility that females mistake these fawns for their own. White-tailed deer females approached the speaker only when distress calls of white-tailed deer fawns were played and when their own fawn was hidden, suggesting that fawn defence was strictly a matter of parental care in this species. In contrast, mule deer females responded similarly and strongly, regardless of the caller's identity, the female's reproductive state (mother or nonmother) or the presence of their own offspring. The failure of mule deer females to adjust their responses to these conditions suggests that they do not defend nonoffspring because they mistake them for their own fawns. The lack of behavioural discrimination also suggests that kin selection, reciprocal altruism and defence of the offspring's area are unlikely to explain the mule deer's defence of nonoffspring. We identify causal and functional questions that still need to be addressed to understand why mule deer defend fawns so indiscriminately.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4211
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	Author	Prato-Previde, E.; Marshall-Pescini, S.; Valsecchi, P.
	Title	Is your choice my choice` The owners effect on pet dogs? ( Canis lupus familiaris ) performance in a food choice task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	11	Issue	1	Pages	167-174
	Keywords	Dog – Dog-owner relationship – Food choice task – Quantity discrimination
	Abstract	Abstract  This study investigates the influence of owners on their dogs performance in a food choice task using either different or equal quantities of food. Fifty-four pet dogs were tested in three different conditions. In Condition 1 we evaluated their ability to choose between a large and small amount of food (quantity discrimination task). In Condition 2 dogs were again presented with a choice between the large and small food quantity, but only after having witnessed their owner favouring the small quantity. In Condition 3 dogs were given a choice between two equally small quantities of food having witnessed their owner favouring either one or the other. A strong effect of the owner on the dogs`` performance was observed. In Condition 1 dogs as a group chose significantly more often the large food quantity, thus showing their ability to solve the quantity discrimination task. After observing their owner expressing a preference for the small food quantity they chose the large quantity of food significantly less than in the independent choice situation. The tendency to conform to the owner`s choice was higher when the dogs had to choose between equally small quantities of food (Condition 3) rather than between a large and a small one (Condition 2). These results provide evidence that dogs can be influenced by their owners even when their indications are clearly in contrast with direct perceptual information, thus leading dogs to ultimately make counterproductive choices.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Admin @ knut @			Serial	4216
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	Author	Uller, C.; Lewis, J.
	Title	*Horses (Equus caballus) select the greater of two quantities in small numerical contrasts*			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2009	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	12	Issue	5	Pages	733-738
	Keywords	Quantity representation – Horses – Number discrimination
	Abstract	Abstract The ability to select the greater numerosity over another in small sets seems to stem from the calculation of which set contains more, and has been taken as evidence of a primordial representation at the roots of the primate numerical system. We tested 56 horses (Equus caballus) in a paradigm previously used with human infants and nonhuman primates. Horses saw two quantities paired in contrasts—2 versus 1, 3 versus 2, 6 versus 4 and a control for volume, 2 versus 1 big—and had to make a choice by snout touching the container holding the numerosity selected. The horses spontaneously selected the greater of the two quantities when the numerosities were small. These results add to evidence showing spontaneous quantity assessment in a variety of species.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
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	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5028
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	Author	Hanggi, E.B.; Ingersoll, J.F.
	Title	Stimulus discrimination by horses under scotopic conditions			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2009	Publication	Behavioural Processes	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Process.
	Volume	82	Issue	1	Pages	45-50
	Keywords	Discrimination learning; Equine; Horse; Night vision; Scotopic vision
	Abstract	Scotopic vision in horses (Equus caballus) was investigated using behavioral measurements for the first time. Four horses were tested for the ability to make simple visual discriminations of geometric figures (circles and triangles) under various brightness levels within an enclosed building. Measurements of brightness ranging from 10.37 to 24.12 magnitudes per square arcsecond (mag/arcsec2; in candelas per square meter--7.70 to 2.43E-05 cd/m2) were taken using a Sky Quality Meter. These values approximated outdoor conditions ranging from twilight in open country to a dark moonless night in dense forest. The horses were able to solve the discrimination problems in all brightness settings up to 23.77 mag/arcsec2 (3.35E-05 cd/m2). Moreover, they easily navigated their way around obstacles located within the testing area in extremely dim light (>23.50 mag/arcsec2; 4.30E-05 cd/m2), which were in conditions too dark for the human experimenters to see. These findings support physiological data that reveal a rod-dominated visual system as well as observations of equine activity at night.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0376-6357	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5051
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