Cooper, J. J., & Mason, G. J. (1998). The identification of abnormal behaviour and behavioural problems in stabled horses and their relationship to horse welfare: a comparative review. Equine Vet J Suppl, (27), 5–9.
Abstract: Many behaviours in domestic animals, such as the 'stable vices' of horses, are treated because they are considered undesirable for economic or cultural reasons, and not because the activity affects the horse's quality of life. The impact of a behaviour on the human reporter is not a function of its impact on the animal performer, and an understanding of the causes and effects of the particular activity is necessary to assess the costs and benefits of treatment. Where the behaviour is a sign of poor welfare, such as an inadequate environment, treatment can best be achieved by removing these underlying causal factors. Pharmacological or physical prevention of a behaviour can be justified only if the behaviour causes harm to the performer or to others. In these cases, prevention of the behaviour without addressing its causes is no cure and may result in its perseverance in a modified form or the disruption of the animal's ability to adapt to its environment. Where the behavioural 'problem' causes no harm and is not related to poor housing, then the education of the reporter, rather than treatment of the performer, may be the best solution.
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Summerley, H. L., Thomason, J. J., & Bignell, W. W. (1998). Effect of rider and riding style on deformation of the front hoof wall in warmblood horses. Equine Vet J Suppl, (26), 81–85.
Abstract: A rider modifies the weight distribution and dynamic balance of the horse. But what effect does a rider have on the mechanical behaviour of the hoof during each stance phase? Does riding style have any effect on this behaviour? We attempted to answer these questions using strains recorded from 5 rosette strain gauges glued to the surface of the front hooves of 4 Warmblood horses. Comparisons were made between strains with and without a rider, and when the rider was sitting, rising at a trot, or in a forward seated position. The change in strains from trot to lead or nonlead at a canter, and the effect of turning were also studied. Changing lead at a canter had as least as much effect on strain magnitudes as did turning; strains were up to 43% higher for the nonlead foot, but with little redistribution. Perhaps surprisingly, strains were significantly lower on the quarters by up to 30% with a rider than without, with a 10% increase or decrease at the toe, depending on the individual. Riding style changed strain magnitudes by up to 20% and also caused strain redistribution: strains were higher medially for sitting, and laterally for forward seat, with strains for a rising trot being more evenly distributed and intermediate in magnitude. Studying the range of, and causes of variation in hoof wall strain gives baseline data aimed, in the long term, at providing a biomechanical definition of hoof balance.
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Waran, N. K. (1997). Can studies of feral horse behaviour be used for assessing domestic horse welfare? (Vol. 29).
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Lane, J. G., & Mair, T. S. (1987). Observations on headshaking in the horse. Equine Vet J, 19(4), 331–336.
Abstract: The clinical records of 100 cases of headshaking in horses were reviewed. Possible causes of the abnormal behaviour were identified in 11 animals; these included ear mite infestation, otitis interna, cranial nerve dysfunction, cervical injury, ocular disease, guttural pouch mycosis, dental periapical osteitis and suspected vasomotor rhinitis. However, in only two of these could it be shown that correction of the abnormality led to elimination of the headshaking. The additional clinical signs exhibited by the other idiopathic cases of headshaking included evidence of nasal irritation, sneezing and snorting, nasal discharge, coughing and excessive lacrimation. Many of these horses also showed a marked seasonal pattern with respect to the onset of the disease and the recurrence of signs in subsequent years. The clinical presentation of idiopathic headshakers and the seasonal incidence of the signs closely resemble allergic rhinitis in man.
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Lindsay, F. E., & Burton, F. L. (1983). Observational study of “urine testing” in the horse and donkey stallion. Equine Vet J, 15(4), 330–336.
Abstract: Although “urine testing” is said to enable the male equid to assess the sexual status of the mare, there are no reports in the literature of any detailed study of this behavioural response of the stallion. Behavioural response to conspecific urine was studied in two horse stallions and one donkey stallion. The relevant nasopalatine anatomy is described. Events observed during urine testing included head, neck, lip, jaw, tongue movements, penile changes and nasal secretion. Nasal endoscopy indicated that the source of part of the nasal secretion was the secretory glands of the vomeronasal organ complex. The significance and probable function of these events in urine testing is discussed.
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Donnelly, J., Phipps, L. P., & Watkins, K. L. (1982). Evidence of maternal antibodies to Babesia equi and B caballi in foals of seropositive mares. Equine Vet J, 14(2), 126–128.
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Hawkes, J., Hedges, M., Daniluk, P., Hintz, H. F., & Schryver, H. F. (1985). Feed preferences of ponies. Equine Vet J, 17(1), 20–22.
Abstract: Preference trials were conducted with mature ponies. In Trial 1, oats were compared with oats plus sucrose. Four of six pony geldings selected oats plus sucrose, but one pony demonstrated a dislike for sucrose and one selected from the bucket on the right side regardless of content. Oats, maize, barley, rye and wheat were compared in Trial 2 using six mature pony mares. Oats were the preferred grain, with maize and barley ranking second and third respectively. Wheat and rye were the least preferred. Even though the ponies demonstrated preference, the total intake at a given meal was not greatly depressed when only the less palatable grains were fed. In Trial 3, pony mares selected a diet containing 20 per cent dried distillers' grain and 80 per cent of a basal mixed diet of maize, oats, wheat bran, soybean meal, limestone and molasses over 100 per cent basal mixed diet, but selected the basal diet over diets containing 20 per cent blood meal, beet pulp or meat and bone meal and 80 per cent basal diet. They did not differentiate against diets containing 20 per cent alfalfa meal or 10 or 5 per cent meat and bone meal when the diets were compared to the basal mixed diet.
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Henneke, D. R., Potter, G. D., Kreider, J. L., & Yeates, B. F. (1983). Relationship between condition score, physical measurements and body fat percentage in mares. Equine Vet J, 15(4), 371–372.
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Wennerstrand, J., Johnston, C., Roethlisberger-Holm, K., Erichsen, C., Eksell, P., & Drevemo, S. (2004). Kinematic evaluation of the back in the sport horse with back pain. Equine Vet J, 36(8), 707–711.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Earlier studies have developed a clinical tool to evaluate objectively the function of the equine back. The ability to differentiate horses with back pain from asymptomatic, fully functioning horses using kinematic measures from this tool has not been evaluated. OBJECTIVES: To compare the kinematics of the back at walk and trot in riding horses with back dysfunction to the same parameters in asymptomatic sport horses. METHODS: The kinematics of the back in 12 horses with impaired performance and back pain were studied at walk and trot on a treadmill. Data were captured for 10 sees at 240 Hz. Range of movement (ROM) and intravertebral pattern symmetry of movement for flexion and extension (FE), lateral bending (LB) and axial rotation (AR) were derived from angular motion pattern data and the results compared to an earlier established database on asymptomatic riding horses. RESULTS: At walk, horses with back dysfunction had a ROM smaller for dorsoventral FE in the caudal thoracic region (T13 = 7.50 degrees, T17 = 7.71 degrees; P<0.05), greater for LB at T13 (8.13 degrees; P<0.001) and smaller for AR of the pelvis (10.97 degrees; P<0.05) compared to asymptomatic horses (FE-T13 = 8.28 degrees, FE-T17 = 8.49 degrees, LB-T13 = 6.34 degrees, AR-pelvis = 12.77 degrees). At trot, dysfunctional horses had a smaller (P<0.05) ROM for FE at the thoracic lumbar junction (T17 = 2.46 degrees, L1 = 2.60 degrees) compared to asymptomatic horses (FE-T17 = 3.07 degrees, FE-L1 = 3.12 degrees). CONCLUSIONS: The objective measurement technique can detect differences between back kinematics in riding horses with signs of back dysfunction and asymptomatic horses. The clinical manifestation of back pain results in diminished flexion/extension movement at or near the thoracic lumbar junction. However, before applying the method more extensively in practice it is necessary to evaluate it further, including measurements of patients whose diagnoses can be confirmed and long-term follow-ups of back patients after treatment. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Since the objective measurement technique can detect small movement differences in back kinematics, it should help to clinically describe and, importantly, objectively detect horses with back pain and dysfunction.
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Rhodin, M., Johnston, C., Holm, K. R., Wennerstrand, J., & Drevemo, S. (2005). The influence of head and neck position on kinematics of the back in riding horses at the walk and trot. Equine Vet J, 37(1), 7–11.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: A common opinion among riders and in the literature is that the positioning of the head and neck influences the back of the horse, but this has not yet been measured objectively. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of head and neck position on the kinematics of the back in riding horses. METHODS: Eight Warmblood riding horses in regular work were studied on a treadmill at walk and trot with the head and neck in 3 different predetermined positions achieved by side reins attached to the bit and to an anticast roller. The 3-dimensional movement of the thoracolumbar spine was measured from the position of skin-fixed markers recorded by infrared videocameras. RESULTS: Head and neck position influenced the movements of the back, especially at the walk. When the head was fixed in a high position at the walk, the flexion-extension movement and lateral bending of the lumbar back, as well as the axial rotation, were significantly reduced when compared to movements with the head free or in a low position. At walk, head and neck position also significantly influenced stride length, which was shortest with the head in a high position. At trot, the stride length was independent of head position. CONCLUSIONS: Restricting and restraining the position and movement of the head and neck alters the movement of the back and stride characteristics. With the head and neck in a high position stride length and flexion and extension of the caudal back were significantly reduced. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Use of side reins in training and rehabilitation programmes should be used with an understanding of the possible effects on the horse's back.
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