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	Author	Hunt, G.R.; Rutledge, R.B.; Gray, R.D.
	Title	The right tool for the job: what strategies do wild New Caledonian crows use?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	4	Pages	307-316
	Keywords	Analysis of Variance; Animals; Comprehension; Crows; Female; Intelligence; Male; Problem Solving; Tool Use Behavior
	Abstract	New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides (NC crows) display sophisticated tool manufacture in the wild, but the cognitive strategy underlying these skills is poorly understood. Here, we investigate what strategy two free-living NC crows used in response to a tool-length task. The crows manufactured tools to extract food from vertical holes of different depths. The first tools they made in visits were of a similar length regardless of the hole depth. The typical length was usually too short to extract food from the deep holes, which ruled out a strategy of immediate causal inference on the first attempt in a trial. When the first tool failed, the crows made second tools significantly longer than the unsuccessful first tools. There was no evidence that the crows made the lengths of first tools to directly match hole depth. We argue that NC crows may generally use a two-stage heuristic strategy to solve tool problems and that performance on the first attempt in a trial is not necessarily the 'gold standard' for assessing folk physics.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. grhunt10@hotmail.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16941156			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2442
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	Author	Lewis, K.P.; Jaffe, S.; Brannon, E.M.
	Title	Analog number representations in mongoose lemurs (Eulemur mongoz): evidence from a search task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	4	Pages	247-252
	Keywords	Analysis of Variance; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Feeding Behavior; Female; Lemuridae/*psychology; Male; Mathematics; Odors; Smell/physiology; Time Factors
	Abstract	A wealth of data demonstrating that monkeys and apes represent number have been interpreted as suggesting that sensitivity to number emerged early in primate evolution, if not before. Here we examine the numerical capacities of the mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz), a member of the prosimian suborder of primates that split from the common ancestor of monkeys, apes and humans approximately 47-54 million years ago. Subjects observed as an experimenter sequentially placed grapes into an opaque bucket. On half of the trials the experimenter placed a subset of the grapes into a false bottom such that they were inaccessible to the lemur. The critical question was whether lemurs would spend more time searching the bucket when food should have remained in the bucket, compared to when they had retrieved all of the food. We found that the amount of time lemurs spent searching was indicative of whether grapes should have remained in the bucket, and furthermore that lemur search time reliably differentiated numerosities that differed by a 1:2 ratio, but not those that differed by a 2:3 or 3:4 ratio. Finally, two control conditions determined that lemurs represented the number of food items, and neither the odor of the grapes, nor the amount of grape (e.g., area) in the bucket. These results suggest that mongoose lemurs have numerical representations that are modulated by Weber's Law.
	Address	Department of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130-4899, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15660208			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2497
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	Author	Palmer, M.E.; Calve, M.R.; Adamo, S.A.
	Title	Response of female cuttlefish Sepia officinalis (Cephalopoda) to mirrors and conspecifics: evidence for signaling in female cuttlefish			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	2	Pages	151-155
	Keywords	Analysis of Variance; Animal Communication; Animals; Bias (Epidemiology); Female; Male; Pigmentation/physiology; Recognition (Psychology)/physiology; Sepia/physiology; Visual Perception/*physiology
	Abstract	Cuttlefish have a large repertoire of body patterns that are used for camouflage and interspecific signaling. Intraspecific signaling by male cuttlefish has been well documented but studies on signaling by females are lacking. We found that females displayed a newly described body pattern termed Splotch toward their mirror image and female conspecifics, but not to males, prey or inanimate objects. Female cuttlefish may use the Splotch body pattern as an intraspecific signal, possibly to reduce agonistic interactions. The ability of females to produce a consistent body pattern in response to conspecifics and mirrors suggests that they can recognize same-sex conspecifics using visual cues, despite the lack of sexual dimorphism visible to human observers.
	Address	Dorset Environmental Science Centre, Dorset, ON, Canada, P0A 1E0
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16408230			Approved	no
	Call Number	Admin @ knut @			Serial	16
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	Author	Hare, J.F.; Sealy, S.G.; Underwood, T.J.; Ellison, K.S.; Stewart, R.L.M.
	Title	Evidence of self-referent phenotype matching revisited: airing out the armpit effect			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	1	Pages	65-68
	Keywords	Alleles; Animals; Birds; Cricetinae; Dogs; Humans; Invertebrates; Learning; Odors; Pedigree; Phenotype; Recognition (Psychology); Self Psychology; *Social Behavior
	Abstract
	Address	Department of Zoology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada. harejf@cc.umanitoba.ca
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12701614			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2576
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	Author	Imura, T.; Tomonaga, M.
	Title	Perception of depth from shading in infant chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	253-258
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Contrast Sensitivity/physiology; Depth Perception/physiology; Discrimination Learning/physiology; Female; Male; Pan troglodytes/growth & development/physiology/*psychology; Pattern Recognition, Visual/physiology
	Abstract	We investigated the ability to perceive depth from shading, one of the pictorial depth cues, in three chimpanzee infants aged 4-10 months old, using a preferential reaching task commonly used to study pictorial depth perception in human infants. The chimpanzee infants reached significantly more to three-dimensional toys than to pictures thereof and more to the three-dimensional convex than to the concave. Furthermore, two of the three infants reached significantly more to the photographic convex than to the photographic concave. These infants also looked longer at the photographic convex than the concave. Our results suggest that chimpanzees perceive, at least as early as the latter half of the first year of life, pictorial depth defined by shading information. Photographic convexes contain richer information about pictorial depth (e.g., attached shadow, cast shadow, highlighted area, and global difference in brightness) than simple computer-graphic graded patterns. These cues together might facilitate the infants' perception of depth from shading.
	Address	Graduate School of Humanities, Kwansei Gakuin University, Uegahara, Nishinomiya, Hyogo 662-8501, Japan
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14610661			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2550
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	Author	Hayashi, M.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Cognitive development in object manipulation by infant chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	225-233
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Child Development/physiology; Child, Preschool; Cognition/physiology; Female; Growth; Humans; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Infant; Learning/physiology; Male; Mothers/psychology; Motor Skills/physiology; Pan troglodytes/growth & development/psychology; Psychomotor Performance/*physiology; Species Specificity
	Abstract	This study focuses on the development of spontaneous object manipulation in three infant chimpanzees during their first 2 years of life. The three infants were raised by their biological mothers who lived among a group of chimpanzees. A human tester conducted a series of cognitive tests in a triadic situation where mothers collaborated with the researcher during the testing of the infants. Four tasks were presented, taken from normative studies of cognitive development of Japanese infants: inserting objects into corresponding holes in a box, seriating nesting cups, inserting variously shaped objects into corresponding holes in a template, and stacking up wooden blocks. The mothers had already acquired skills to perform these manipulation tasks. The infants were free to observe the mothers' manipulative behavior from immediately after birth. We focused on object-object combinations that were made spontaneously by the infant chimpanzees, without providing food reinforcement for any specific behavior that the infants performed. The three main findings can be summarized as follows. First, there was precocious appearance of object-object combination in infant chimpanzees: the age of onset (8-11 months) was comparable to that in humans (around 10 months old). Second, object-object combinations in chimpanzees remained at a low frequency between 11 and 16 months, then increased dramatically at the age of approximately 1.5 years. At the same time, the accuracy of these object-object combinations also increased. Third, chimpanzee infants showed inserting behavior frequently and from an early age but they did not exhibit stacking behavior during their first 2 years of life, in clear contrast to human data.
	Address	Section of Language and Intelligence, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41 Kanrin, Inuyama, 484-8506 Aichi, Japan. misato@pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12905079			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2559
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	Author	Bjorklund, D.F.; Yunger, J.L.; Bering, J.M.; Ragan, P.
	Title	The generalization of deferred imitation in enculturated chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	1	Pages	49-58
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Pan troglodytes/physiology/psychology; Parenting; Species Specificity
	Abstract	Deferred imitation of object-related actions and generalization of imitation to similar but not identical tasks was assessed in three human-reared (enculturated) chimpanzees, ranging in age from 5 to 9 years. Each ape displayed high levels of deferred imitation and only slightly lower levels of generalization of imitation. The youngest two chimpanzees were more apt to generalize the model's actions when they had displayed portions of the target behaviors at baseline, consistent with the idea that learning is more likely to occur when working within the “zone of proximal development.” We argue that generalization of imitation is the best evidence to date of imitative learning in chimpanzees.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0991, USA. dbjorklund@fau.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11957402			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2610
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	Author	Call, J.
	Title	Inferences by exclusion in the great apes: the effect of age and species			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	4	Pages	393-403
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Association Learning; Cognition; Concept Formation; Discrimination Learning; Female; Gorilla gorilla; Hominidae/classification/psychology; Male; Pan paniscus; Pan troglodytes; Pongo pygmaeus; *Problem Solving; Species Specificity
	Abstract	This study investigated the ability of chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and bonobos to make inferences by exclusion using the procedure pioneered by Premack and Premack (Cognition 50:347-362, 1994) with chimpanzees. Thirty apes were presented with two different food items (banana vs. grape) on a platform and covered with identical containers. One of the items was removed from the container and placed between the two containers so that subjects could see it. After discarding this item, subjects could select between the two containers. In Experiment 1, apes preferentially selected the container that held the item that the experimenter had not discarded, especially if subjects saw the experimenter remove the item from the container (but without seeing the container empty). Experiment 3 in which the food was removed from one of the containers behind a barrier confirmed these results. In contrast, subjects performed at chance levels when a stimulus (colored plastic chip: Exp. 1; food item: Exp. 2 and Exp. 3) designated the item that had been removed. These results indicated that apes made inferences, not just learned to use a discriminative cue to avoid the empty container. Apes perceived and treated the item discarded by the experimenter as if it were the very one that had been hidden under the container. Results suggested a positive relationship between age and inferential ability independent of memory ability but no species differences.
	Address	Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany. call@eva.mpg.de
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16924458			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2444
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	Author	Borsari, A.; Ottoni, E.B.
	Title	Preliminary observations of tool use in captive hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	1	Pages	48-52
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Feeding Behavior; Female; Intelligence; Male; Motor Skills; Nuts; *Parrots
	Abstract	Many animals use tools (detached objects applied to another object to produce an alteration in shape, position, or structure) in foraging, for instance, to access encapsulated food. Descriptions of tool use by hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) are scarce and brief. In order to describe one case of such behavior, six captive birds were observed while feeding. Differences in nut manipulation and opening proficiency between adults and juveniles were recorded. The tools may be serving as a wedge, preventing the nut from slipping and/or rotating, reducing the impact of opening, or providing mechanical aid in its positioning and/or use of force. Data suggest that birds of this species have an innate tendency to use objects (tools) as aids during nut manipulation and opening.
	Address	Laboratory of Cognitive Ethology, Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil. borsari@hotmail.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15248094			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2518
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	Author	Gácsi, M.; Kara, E.; Belényi, B.; Topál, J.; Miklósi, Á.
	Title	The effect of development and individual differences in pointing comprehension of dogs			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2009	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	12	Issue	3	Pages	471-479
	Keywords	Age Factors; Analysis of Variance; Animals; Association Learning; Attention; Chi-Square Distribution; Choice Behavior; Comprehension; Concept Formation; Dogs/psychology; Female; *Gestures; Humans; Male; Orientation; Statistics, Nonparametric
	Abstract	In spite of the rather different procedures actually used in comparative studies to test the ability of different species to rely on the human pointing gesture, there is no debate on the high performance of dogs in such tasks. Very little is known, however, on the course through which they acquire this ability or the probable factors influencing the process. Important developmental questions have remained unsolved and also some methodological concerns should be addressed before we can convincingly argue for one interpretation or another. In this study we tested 180 dogs of different age (from 2 months to adults) to investigate their performance in the human distal momentary pointing gesture. The results, analyzed at both the group and the individual levels, showed no difference in the performance according to age, indicating that in dogs the comprehension of the human pointing may require only very limited and rapid early learning to fully develop. Interestingly, neither the keeping conditions nor the time spent in active interaction with the owner, and not even some special (agility) training for using human visual cues, had significant effect on the success and explained individual differences. The performance of the dogs was rather stable over time: during the 20 trials within a session and even when subsamples of different age were repeatedly tested. Considering that in spite of the general success at the group level, more than half of the dogs were not successful at the individual level, we revealed alternative “decision-making rules” other than following the pointing gesture of the experimenter.
	Address	Department of Ethology, Eotvos University, Budapest, Hungary. gm.art@t-online.hu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9456	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:19130102			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4969
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