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Fulhorst, C. F., Hardy, J. L., Eldridge, B. F., Chiles, R. E., & Reeves, W. C. (1996). Ecology of Jamestown Canyon virus (Bunyaviridae: California serogroup) in coastal California. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 55(2), 185–189.
Abstract: This paper reports the first isolation of Jamestown Canyon (JC) virus from coastal California and the results of tests for antibody to JC virus in mammals living in coastal California. The virus isolation was made from a pool of 50 Aedes dorsalis females collected as adults from Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, California. The virus isolate was identified by two-way plaque reduction-serum dilution neutralization tests done in Vero cell cultures. Sera from the mammals were tested for antibody to JC virus by a plaque-reduction serum dilution neutralization method. A high prevalence of JC virus-specific antibody was found in horses and cattle sampled from Morro Bay. This finding is additional evidence for the presence of a virus antigenically identical or closely related to JC virus in Morro Bay and indicates that the vectors of the virus in Morro Bay feed on large mammals. A high prevalence of virus-specific antibody was also found in horses sampled from Marin and San Diego counties. This finding suggests that viruses antigenically identical or closely related to JC virus are geographically widespread in coastal California.
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Bertram, D. S. (1971). Mosquitoes of British Honduras, with some comments on malaria, and on arbovirus antibodies in man and equines. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 65(6), 742–762.
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Boyd, L. (1986). Behavior problems of equids in zoos. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 653–664.
Abstract: Behavior problems in zoo equids commonly result from a failure to provide for needs basic to equine nature. Equids are gregarious, and failure to provide companions may result in pacing. Wild equids spend 60 to 70 per cent of their time grazing, and failure to provide ad libitum roughage contributes to the problems of pacing, cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia. Mimicking the normal processes of juvenile dispersal, bachelor-herd formation, and mate acquisition reduces the likelihood of agonistic and reproductive behavior problems. Infanticide can be avoided by introducing new stallions to herds containing only nonpregnant mares and older foals.
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Houpt, K. A. (1986). Stable vices and trailer problems. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 623–633.
Abstract: Stable vices include oral vices such as cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia, as well as stall walking, weaving, pawing, and stall kicking. Some of these behaviors are escape behaviors; others are forms of self-stimulation. Most can be eliminated by pasturing rather than stall confinement. Trailering problems include failure to load, scrambling in the moving trailer, struggling in the stationary trailer, and refusal to unload. Gradual habituation to entering the trailer, the presence of another horse, or a change in trailer type can be used to treat these problems.
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Larose, C., Richard-Yris, M. - A., Hausberger, M., & Rogers, L. J. (2006). Laterality of horses associated with emotionality in novel situations. Laterality, 11(4), 355–367.
Abstract: We have established that lateral biases are characteristic of visual behaviour in 65 horses. Two breeds, Trotters and French Saddlebreds aged 2 to 3, were tested on a novel object test. The main finding was a significant correlation between emotionality index and the eye preferred to view the novel stimulus: the higher the emotionality, the more likely that the horse looked with its left eye. The less emotive French Saddlebreds, however, tended to glance at the object using the right eye, a tendency that was not found in the Trotters, although the emotive index was the same for both breeds. The youngest French Saddlebreds did not show this trend. These results are discussed in relation to the different training practices for the breeds and broader findings on lateralisation in different species.
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Beaver, B. V. (1986). Aggressive behavior problems. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 635–644.
Abstract: Accurate diagnosis of the cause of aggression in horses is essential to determining the appropriate course of action. The affective forms of aggression include fear-induced, pain-induced, intermale, dominance, protective, maternal, learned, and redirected aggressions. Non-affective aggression includes play and sex-related forms. Irritable aggression and hypertestosteronism in mares are medical problems, whereas genetic factors, brain dysfunction, and self-mutilation are also concerns.
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Mellor, P. S. (1993). African horse sickness: transmission and epidemiology. Vet Res, 24(2), 199–212.
Abstract: African horse sickness (AHS) virus causes a non-contagious, infectious, arthropod-borne disease of equines and occasionally of dogs. The virus is widely distributed across sub-Saharan African where it is transmitted between susceptible vertebrate hosts by the vectors. These are usually considered to be species of Culicoides biting midges but mosquitoes and/or ticks may also be involved to a greater or lesser extent. Periodically the virus makes excursions beyond its sub-Saharan enzootic zones but until recently does not appear to have been able to maintain itself outside these areas for more than 2-3 consecutive years at most. This is probably due to a number of factors including the apparent absence of a long term vertebrate reservoir, the prevalence and seasonal incidence of the vectors and the efficiency of control measures (vaccination and vector abatement). The recent AHS epizootics in Iberia and N Africa spanning as they do, 5 or more yr, seem to have established a new pattern in AHS virus persistence. This is probably linked to the continuous presence of adult C imicola in the area. Culicoides imicola is basically an Afro-Asiatic insect and prefers warm climates. Therefore its continuous adult presence in parts of Iberia and N Africa may be due to some recent moderations of the climate in these areas.
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Nelson, G. S. (1970). Onchocerciasis. Adv Parasitol, 8, 173–224.
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Bourdin, P., & Laurent, A. (1974). [Ecology of African horsesickness]. Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop, 27(2), 163–168.
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Venter, G. J., Koekemoer, J. J. O., & Paweska, J. T. (2006). Investigations on outbreaks of African horse sickness in the surveillance zone in South Africa. Rev Sci Tech, 25(3), 1097–1109.
Abstract: Confirmed outbreaks of African horse sickness (AHS) occurred in the surveillance zone of the Western Cape in 1999 and 2004, both of which led to a two-year suspension on the export of horses. Light trap surveys in the outbreak areas showed that known vector competent Culicoides species, notably C. imicola, were abundant and present in numbers equal to those in the traditional AHS endemic areas. Isolations of AHS virus serotypes 1 and 7, equine encephalosis virus, and bluetongue virus from field-collected C. imicola in the surveillance zone demonstrated that this species was highly competent and could transmit viruses belonging to different serogroups of the Orbivirus genus. Molecular identification of recovered virus isolates indicated that at least two incursions of AHS into the surveillance zone had taken place in 2004. The designation of an AHS-free zone in the Western Cape remains controversial since it can be easily compromised, as evidenced by the two recent outbreaks. In light of the results reported in the present study, the policy of maintaining a large population of unvaccinated horses in the surveillance zone should be reconsidered, as it leaves them vulnerable to infection with AHS virus, which is the most pathogenic of all equine viruses.
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