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Waran, N., McGreevy, P., & Casey, R. (2002). Training Methods and Horse Welfare. In The Welfare of Horses (pp. 151–180).
Abstract: Many aspects of horse care and handling are based upon convenience and traditional practices. Many of these methods of management and practice do not take into account the natural behaviour of horses. This is despite the belief that although domestic horses are probably more docile, stronger, faster growing and faster moving than their ancestors, they are unlikely to have lost any natural behaviours. The performance or sport horse is expected to perform a wide variety of movements and tasks, some of which are unnatural or exaggerated and most of which must be learned. The term “training” is commonly used to describe the processes whereby the human handler introduces the horse to new situations and associations. Performance horses are often required to tolerate stimuli that are innately aversive or threatening, such as having a person on their backs. They are also trained to respond to a stimulus with often unnatural or over-emphasised behaviour, such as some of the dressage movements. Effective and humane training requires an understanding of the processes underlying behaviour. These include knowledge of behaviour under natural conditions, learning processes, the influence of early experience and motivational forces. Horses differ from the other main companion animal species, namely cats and dogs, in that they are a prey species. They most commonly flee from dangerous and painful situations. Horses readily learn to avoid potentially threatening situations and if their attempts to avoid associated stimuli are prevented, they will often exhibit problem behaviours. In this chapter the history of horse training, the application of learning theory and a knowledge of equine behaviour to training, and innovative training methods are all considered.
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Evans, D. (2002). Welfare of the Racehorse During Exercise Training and Racing. In The Welfare of Horses (pp. 181–201).
Abstract: The welfare of horses in training for racing and competition can be compromised by errors of management of many processes. Lameness is usually identified, as the major problem facing horse trainers and high lameness rates in racehorses is a major welfare concern. Recent epidemiological studies have shed light on important environmental risk factors for lameness and catastrophic incidents during training and racing. Another important threat to the welfare of the athletic horse is failure of appropriate preparation of the horse for competition, resulting in earlier fatigue during a race. Fatigue during racing causes sub-optimal performance, increases the likelihood of injury and, in prolonged exercise contributes to exhaustion and even death. Failure to allow appropriate recovery periods after episodes of training and competition also contributes to a state of chronic fatigue. Trainers recognise that affected horses (or “stale” horses) often have mood disturbances and are reluctant to exercise. Continued excessive training and inadequate recovery (termed, over-training) can result in weight loss and poor performance that is not reversed by short-term recovery periods. In events involving prolonged exercise, the performance and welfare of the horse are compromised by inappropriate fluid balance before and during exercise. Failure to properly prepare and maintain fluid balance of endurance horses results in a severe threat to welfare. Pronounced dehydration and hyperthermia can result in exhaustion and death.
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Wilson, R. (2002). Specific Welfare Problems Associated with Working Horses. In The Welfare of Horses (pp. 203–218).
Abstract: A brief review of the history and uses of workhorses is provided as well as numbers and distributions of working equines at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The problems of using the correct harness and correct alignment of horse and equipment through the harness are considered and care of the feet and especially the necessity of correct shoeing for both welfare and maximum work are discussed. The nutritional needs of working equines in terms of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins and the importance of good health and prevention and management of disease, are examined. Relationships between the animal and his owner or handler and some legal aspects of improving welfare are covered and it is concluded that education of these owners/handlers is essential for improving the welfare of working equids in developing countries.
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Walpole, M. J., & Leader-Williams, N. (2002). Tourism and flagship species in conservation. Biodivers Conserv, 11.
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Jedrzejewski, W., Schmidt, K., Theuerkauf, J., Jedrzejewska, B., Selva, N., & Zub, K. (2002). Kill rate and predation by wolves on ungulate populations in Bialowieza primeval forest (Poland). Ecology, 83.
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Gazzola, A., Avanzinelli, E., Mauri, L., Scandura, M., & Apollonio, M. (2002). Temporal changes of howling in south European wolf packs. Ital J Zool, 69.
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