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Biro, D.; Matsuzawa, T. |
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Use of numerical symbols by the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): Cardinals, ordinals, and the introduction of zero |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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193-199 |
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An adult female chimpanzee with previous training in the use of Arabic numerals 1–9 was introduced to the meaning of “zero” in the context of three different numerical tasks. The first two were cardinal tasks where the subject was required either to select numerals corresponding to the number of items presented on a computer screen (productive use of numerals) or to match sets of the appropriate size to numerals presented as samples (receptive use). The third task addressed the ordinal meaning of the same symbols where the subject was required to respond to numerals sequentially, arranging them into an ascending series. The subject mastered the recognition of the meaning of zero in all three tasks. However, details of her usage of the symbol revealed that transfer of the meaning between different kinds of tasks was incomplete, suggesting that the level of ion characteristic of human numerical ability was not attained in the chimpanzee. Over the course of acquisition leading to the high levels of accuracy eventually observed, the newly introduced zero appeared to shift along the length of a continuous numerical scale toward the lower end, while confusions with 1 remained the most frequently encountered mistakes. Such patterns of error thus suggest that Ai's understanding of the meaning of zero in relation to the rest of the number symbols was not consistent with an “absence of items versus presence of items” scheme. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3251 |
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Miklósi, A.'.; Polgárdi, R.; Topál, J.; Csányi, V. |
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Intentional behaviour in dog-human communication: an experimental analysis of “showing” behaviour in the dog |
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2000 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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3 |
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3 |
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159-166 |
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Despite earlier scepticism there is now evidence for simple forms of intentional and functionally referential communication in many animal species. Here we investigate whether dogs engage in functional referential communication with their owners. “Showing” is defined as a communicative action consisting of both a directional component related to an external target and an attention-getting component that directs the attention of the perceiver to the informer or sender. In our experimental situation dogs witness the hiding of a piece of food (or a favourite toy) which they cannot get access to. We asked whether dogs would engage in “showing” in the presence of their owner. To control for the motivational effects of both the owner and the food on the dogs' behaviour, control observations were also staged where only the food (or the toy) or the owner was present. Dogs' gazing frequency at both the food (toy) and the owner was greater when only one of these was present. In other words, dogs looked more frequently at their owner when the food (toy) was present, and they looked more at the location of the food (toy) when the owner was present. When both the food (toy) and the owner were present a new behaviour, “gaze alternation”, emerged which was defined as changing the direction of the gaze from the location of the food (toy) to looking at the owner (or vice versa) within 2 s. Vocalisations that occurred in this phase were always associated with gazing at the owner or the location of the food. This behaviour, which was specific to this situation, has also been described in chimpanzees, a gorilla and humans, and has often been interpreted as a form of functionally referential communication. Based on our observations we argue that dogs might be able to engage in functionally referential communication with their owner, and their behaviour could be described as a form of “showing”. The contribution of domestication and individual learning to the well-developed communicative skills in dogs is discussed and will be the subject of further studies. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3274 |
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Sousa, C.; Matsuzawa, T. |
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The use of tokens as rewards and tools by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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213-221 |
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This paper explores the effectiveness of token rewards in maintaining chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes) in working at intellectually costly tasks, and studies the “saving” behavior of the subjects, investigating the factors that can condition it. Two experiments were run. Tokens were introduced as rewards in a matching-to-sample task and used as exchange tools for food by three adult female chimpanzees. Subjects' performances were maintained at constant high levels of accuracy, suggesting that the tokens were almost equivalent to direct food rewards. The results also showed the emergence of saving behavior. The subjects spontaneously saved the tokens during the matching-to-sample task before exchanging them for food. The chimpanzees also learned a new symbolic discrimination task, with tokens as the reward. During this learning process a rarely reported phenomenon emerged: one of the subjects showed symmetry, a form of stimulus equivalence. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3280 |
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Parr, L.A.; Winslow, J.T.; Hopkins, W.D. |
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Is the inversion effect in rhesus monkeys face-specific? |
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1999 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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2 |
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3 |
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123-129 |
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This study investigated the face inversion effect in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Face stimuli consisted of ten black-and-white examples of unfamiliar rhesus monkey faces, brown capuchin faces, and human faces. Two non-face categories included ten examples of automobiles and abstract shapes. All stimuli were presented in a sequential matching-to-sample format using an automated joystick-testing paradigm. Subjects performed significantly better on upright than on inverted presentations of automobiles, rhesus monkey and capuchin faces, but not human faces or abstract shapes. These results are inconsistent with data from humans and chimpanzees that show the inversion effect only for categories of stimuli for which subjects have developed expertise. The inversion effect in rhesus monkeys does not appear to be face-specific, and should therefore not be used as a marker of specialized face processing in this species. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3282 |
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Kutsukake, N.; Castles, D.L. |
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Reconciliation and variation in post-conflict stress in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata): testing the integrated hypothesis |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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259-268 |
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Reconciliation in primates, a post-conflict affiliative interaction between former opponents, appears to have two functions: (1) to repair relationship damaged by aggression such that animals who share more valuable relationships are more likely to reconcile, and (2) to reduce the post-conflict uncertainty and stress of former combatants. The 'integrated hypothesis' of reconciliation links these functions by arguing that the disturbance of a valuable relationship by aggression should result in particularly high levels of stress, which in turn should facilitate efforts to reconcile and thus gain relief from post-conflict stress. A key prediction of the integrated hypothesis is that victims of aggression suffer more stress following conflicts with individuals with whom they share a valuable relationship. In this article, we test the integrated hypothesis by observing the post-conflict behaviour of victims among a free-ranging provisioned troop of Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata fuscata) living in Shiga Heights, Nagano, Japan. In this troop, monkeys reconciled roughly one in seven conflicts. The only factor that we could significantly relate to the occurrence of reconciliation was kinship; kin reconciled more frequently than non-kin did. Receiving aggression increased and reconciliation reduced the probability of being re-attacked after aggressive interactions, supporting the hypothesis that reconciliation repairs relationships. Victims' self-directed behaviour (SDB) – a behavioural index of stress comprising increases in scratching, self-grooming, and body-shaking – was elevated following aggression but decreased rapidly following reconciliation, supporting the idea that reconciliation functions to reduce post-conflict stress. Post-conflict SDB varied as follows: (1) victims showed a higher level of stress following aggression with kin than with non-kin, and (2) juvenile victims were less distressed than adults. The level of post-conflict SDB performed by juveniles following conflicts with kin was indistinguishable from that performed by adults but was greatly reduced following attacks from non-kin. These results indicate that post-conflict SDB keenly reflects the value of relationships between opponents, and that the post-conflict behaviour of free-ranging Japanese macaques fits the predictions of the integrated hypothesis. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3283 |
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Okanoya, K.; Ikebuchi, M.; Uno, H.; Watanabe, S. |
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Left-side dominance for song discrimination in Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata var. domestica) |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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241-245 |
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Male Bengalese finches are left-side dominant for the motor control of song in the sensorimotor nucleus (the high vocal center, or HVc) of the telencephalon. We examined whether perceptual discrimination of songs might also be lateralized in this species. Twelve male Bengalese finches were trained by operant conditioning to discriminate between a Bengalese finch song and a zebra finch song. Before training, the left HVc was lesioned in four birds and the right HVc was lesioned in four other birds. The remaining four birds were used as controls without surgery. Birds with a left HVc lesion required significantly more time to learn to discriminate between the two songs than did birds with a right HVc lesion or intact control birds. These results suggest that the left HVc is not only dominant for the motor control of song, but also for the perceptual discrimination of song. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3287 |
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Cheng, K. |
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K.J. Jeffery (ed) The neurobiology of spatial behaviour |
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2004 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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7 |
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3 |
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199-200 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3291 |
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Matsuzawa, T.; Tomonaga, M. |
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For a rise of comparative cognitive science |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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133-135 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3299 |
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Ushitani, T.; Fujita, K.; Yamanaka, R. |
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Do pigeons (Columba livia) perceive object unity? |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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153-161 |
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Human infants perceive two rods moving in concert behind an occluder as one unitary rod. In four experiments we tested whether pigeons also perceive unity of objects. Pigeons were trained on a matching-to-sample task to discriminate between one unitary rod moving at a constant speed and two aligned rods moving together at the same speed. The latter stimulus was identical to the former except for a gap in the center. In experiment 1, we tested pigeons in probe trials in which a rectangle occluded the center of the sample rods, to see which comparison stimulus, the unitary rod or the aligned two rods, the subjects would match to the sample. Two of the three subjects pecked at the two rods significantly more often than at the unitary rod. In experiment 2, we trained the same pigeons to match the sample rods moving “in front of” the occluder. Pigeons persisted in matching two separate rods to the unitary rod moving in front of the occluder. In experiments 3 and 4, we used a parallelogram and an undulating shape as the occluder to alter the shape and the size of the portions above and below the occluder by the motion of the sample rods. Both subjects chose the two rods significantly more often than chance in experiment 3 and one of them did so in experiment 4. The results suggest that pigeons do not complete occluded portions even though the two elements move in concert. These negative results suggest that some alternative way of identifying objects may have evolved in pigeons. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3311 |
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Hirata, S.; Matsuzawa, T. |
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Tactics to obtain a hidden food item in chimpanzee pairs (Pan troglodytes) |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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285-295 |
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Five dyads of chimpanzees were tested in a competitive situation, as a pilot study to examine chimpanzees' understanding of conspecifics' knowledge. A human experimenter baited one of five containers in an outdoor enclosure. Chimpanzee A (witness) could see where the food was hidden, while chimpanzee B (witness-of-witness) could not see the baited place but could observe the chimpanzee A watching the food being hidden. Then the two were released into the enclosure. This procedure was repeated for a certain number of days along with a control condition in which neither could see the baited location. The witness-of-witness developed tactics to forestall the witness in two pairs. The witness misled the witness-of-witness by taking a route to an empty container in several cases. These episodes might represent examples of deception. Tactics and counter-tactics thus developed through the interaction between the witness and the witness-of-witness, illustrating the high social intelligence of chimpanzees. An examination of the changes in tactics suggests a possibility that the witness-of-witness understands the witness's knowledge of the location of hidden food. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3313 |
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