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Clarke, J.V.; Nicol, C.J.; Jones, R.; McGreevy, P.D. |
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Title |
Effects of observational learning on food selection in horses |
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1996 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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50 |
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2 |
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177-184 |
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Horse; Observational learning; Food discrimination |
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Fourteen riding horses of mixed age and breed were randomly allocated to observer and control treatments. An additional horse was pre-trained as a demonstrator to walk the 13.8 m length of the test arena and select one of two food buckets using colour and pattern cues. Observer horses were exposed to correct performances of the task by the trained demonstrator, for 20 trials held over 2 days. Control horses were subjected to the same handling and placement procedures as the observer horses but without exposure to the behaviour of the demonstrator. The third day for all subjects was designated as a test day. Each subject was released individually in a predetermined place in the arena, and the latency to walk the length of the test arena to the food buckets, the latency to feed, the identity of the bucket approached and the identity of the bucket selected were recorded on ten consecutive trials. During tests both food buckets contained food to minimize the possibility of individual trial and error learning. On the first trial the mean latency to approach the goal area was 18 s for observer horses, compared with 119 s for control horses (t = 2.8, d.f. = 12, P < 0.01) and the mean latency to eat was 35 s for observer horses, compared with 181 s for control horses (t = 4.86, d.f. = 11, P < 0.001). However, observer horses were no more likely to choose the demonstrated bucket than control horses on the first trial. Twelve of the 14 horses decreased their latency to approach the goal area during the series of ten trials, but there were no significant changes in the buckets selected. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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563 |
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McGreevy, P.D.; Rogers, L.J. |
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Title |
Motor and sensory laterality in thoroughbred horses |
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2005 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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92 |
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4 |
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337-352 |
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Horse; Lateralisation; Training; Olfaction; Forelimb preference |
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We investigated lateralisation in horses because it is likely to be important in training and athletic performance. Thoroughbred horses (n = 106) were observed every 60 s for 2 h, when they were at pasture, and the position of the forelimbs in relation to one another was recorded. There was a population bias skewed to standing with the left forelimb advanced over the right (i.e. directional lateralisation). Using the first 50 observations, the distribution of preferences was 43 significantly left, 10 significantly right with 53 being non-significant (i.e. ambidextextrous). The strength of motor bias increased with age, suggesting maturation or an influence of training. The horses were also presented with an olfactory stimulus (stallion faeces) to score the tendency to use one nostril rather than the other. A significant preference to use the right nostril first was shown in horses under 4 years of age (n = 61) but not in older horses. Of the 157 horses tested for nostril bias, 76 had been assessed for motor bias and so were used for analysis of the relationship between laterality in the two modalities. There was no significant relationship between direction of foreleg motor bias and first nostril used, total number of inhalations or laterality index of nostril use. The absence of a correlation between laterality of nostril use and motor bias indicates that lateralisation of the equine brain occurs on at least two levels of neural organisation--sensory and motor--a finding that is consistent with other examples of lateralisation in species that have been examined in more detail. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ room 3.029 |
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1827 |
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McGreevy, P.D.; Thomson, P.C. |
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Differences in motor laterality between breeds of performance horse |
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2006 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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99 |
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1-2 |
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183-190 |
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Horse; Lateralisation; Laterality; Breed; Training |
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This study examined the relationship between motor laterality in horses bred for different types of work and therefore different temperaments. Foreleg preference during grazing was measured in three populations of domestic horse, Thoroughbreds (TB, bred to race at the gallop), Standardbreds (SB, bred for pacing) and Quarter Horses (QH, in this case bred for so-called “cutting work” which involves manoeuvring individual cattle in and out of herds). With a one-sample t-test, TBs showed strong evidence of a left preference in motor laterality (P = 0.000), as did SBs (P = 0.002) but there was no convincing evidence for laterality in QH (P = 0.117). However, the increasing trend in left preference from QH to SBs then TBs was associated with increasing differences between individual horses within a breed. The overall preference (either left or right) increased with age (P = 0.008) and the rate of increase varied with breeds. The presence of a higher proportion of left-foreleg preferent individuals in TBs and SBs compared with QH may indicate that their training or selection (or both) has an effect on motor bias. |
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1828 |
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Warren-Smith, A.K.; Greetham, L.; McGreevy, P.D. |
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Title |
Behavioral and physiological responses of horses (Equus caballus) to head lowering |
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2007 |
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research |
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2 |
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3 |
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59-67 |
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behavior; head lowering; heart rate; horse; training |
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Horse trainers often report that lowering the height of a horse's head so the poll is below the height of the withers can induce a calming effect during training. Four groups of horses were used in a 2-part study to investigate the behavioral and physiological effects of head lowering in horses. In Part 1, Group A had no experimental stimuli applied and horses in Group B were trained to lower their heads when presented with a specific stimulus by the handler. The stimulus for head lowering was the application of downward pressure on the headcollar via the lead rope until the horse lowered its head such that its lips were approximately at mid-cannon (third metacarpal) height, whereupon the pressure was released. The stimulus was applied again if the horse raised its head during the 300-second test period. In Part 2, Groups C and D were aroused until their heart rates exceeded 100 beats per minute (bpm). Group C had no further experimental stimuli applied whereas Group D lowered their heads as a response to the above stimulus for a period of 300 seconds. Repeated measures analysis showed that there was no difference between the heart rate of Groups A and B or Groups C and D but that the heart rate of Groups A and B were lower than Groups C and D during the 300-second post-arousal (P < 0.001). The horses in Groups A and B were more likely to contact the handler (P < 0.001), exhibit licking and chewing (P < 0.001), rest a hindleg (P < 0.001), and sniff the ground (P < 0.001) than those in Groups C and D. The number of stimuli required to maintain the head in a lowered position was greatest during the first 30 seconds (P = 0.012 and P < 0.001, Parts 1 and 2, respectively). The current study has shown that head lowering in horses does not influence cardiac responses, even after the horses had been aroused to have their heart rates above 100 bpm. Therefore, it is not a method that will aid in calming an aroused horse in training. Contrary to popular belief, there was no association with licking-and-chewing and head lowering, nor with these behaviors and response acquisition. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4201 |
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Warren-Smith, A.K.; Curtis, R.A.; Greetham, L.; McGreevy, P.D. |
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Rein contact between horse and handler during specific equitation movements |
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Journal Article |
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2007 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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108 |
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1-2 |
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157-169 |
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Horse; Long-reining; Rein contact; Rein tension; Riding; Training |
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To explore the range of tensions used in reins to elicit specific movements from a range of horses, 22 horses of mixed age, sex, breed and training history were long-reined and ridden through a standard course. The reins contained embedded load cells so that tensions used to elicit specific movements could be measured and logged. These movements were categorised into `left turn', `right turn', `going straight' and `halt' and were separated for left and right rein tensions. The data were analysed using two-sample non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnoff tests and the differences between categories of horse and equipment were analysed with one-way analysis of variance. The tensions recorded in the reins were greater for long-reining than riding (median 5.76, Q25 3.9, Q75 13.3 N and median 5.29, Q25 9.3, Q75 2.9 N, respectively, P = 0.025), irrespective of whether the horses were ridden with a halter or a bridle or whether the test was completed at a walk or a trot. The tensions did not differ between the left and right reins (P > 0.05) when the horses were being driven or ridden in a straight line, providing evidence that an `even contact' was maintained. The rein tension required for going straight was less than for any other responses, showing that a lighter contact on the reins can be maintained between the application of specific stimuli. The rein tension required to elicit the halt response was greater than for any other response (P < 0.001). The rein tensions required to complete the course did not differ with the use of bridle versus the halter (P > 0.05). Clearly, a range of rein tensions is required for horses to elicit specific responses. In the interests of horse welfare and avoidance of habituation, those involved in equitation need to become aware of the tensions used in training horses and seek to keep them to a minimum. When rein tension can be measured objectively, this process can be easily implemented and monitored. |
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Admin @ knut @ |
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4336 |
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McGreevy, P.D.; McLean, A.N. |
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Title |
Roles of learning theory and ethology in equitation |
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2007 |
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research |
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2 |
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4 |
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108-118 |
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ethological training; equine ethnology; equitation; horse behavior; learning theory |
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By definition, ethology is primarily the scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being the study of animal behavior in the human domain. The terms equine ethology and ethological training are becoming commonplace in the equestrian domain, yet they seem to be used with a conspicuous lack of clarity and with no mention of learning theory. Most of what we do to train horses runs counter to their innate preferences. This article summarizes the ethological challenges encountered by working horses and considers the merits and limitations of ethological solutions. It also questions the use of terms such as “alpha” and “leader” and examines aspects of learning theory, equine cognition, and ethology as applied to horse training and clinical behavior modification. We propose 7 training principles that optimally account for the horse's ethological and learning abilities and maintain maximal responsivity in the trained horse. These principles can be summarized as: (1) use learning theory appropriately; (2) train easy-to-discriminate signals; (3) train and subsequently elicit responses singularly; (4) train only one response per signal; (5) train all responses to be initiated and subsequently completed within a consistent structure; (6) train persistence of current operantly conditioned responses; and (7) avoid and disassociate flight responses. Adherence to these principles and incorporating them into all horse training methodologies should accelerate training success, reduce behavioral wastage of horses, and improve safety for both humans and horses. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4511 |
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Goodwin, D.; McGreevy, P.D.; Heleski, C.; Randle, H.; Waran, N. |
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Equitation science: The application of science in equitation |
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2008 |
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Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science |
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11 |
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3 |
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185-190 |
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School of Natural Sciences, Unitec, New Zealand |
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Export Date: 13 November 2008; Source: Scopus |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4656 |
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König von Borstel, U.; Kienapfel, K.; McLean, A.; Wilkins, C.; Evans, D.; McGreevy, P. |
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Title |
Hyperflexing the horse‘s neck: a cost-benefit and meta-analysis |
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2015 |
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Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting |
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Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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horse, head-and-neck posture, hyperflexion, welfare, gymnastics |
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In ethical discussions, a cost-benefit analysis requires that welfare costs associated with an activity can be reliably estimated and balanced against the potential benefits of the activity to both humans and animals. The current study applies a meta-analysis to the peer-reviewed evidence for costs and benefits of hyperflexion of the neck in horses; a practice that has attracted enormous public and scientific scrutiny over the past 15 years. A literature review identified 55 studies dealing with horses’ head and neck postures. Fourty-two of these studies examined the impact of various postures on equine welfare, for example, by assessing behavior, physiological stress parameters, health or rider-horse interaction. Thirty-five studies examined the impact of various postures on gymnastics (e.g. kinematics, shifts in weight distribution, muscle activity, airway functioning or overall workload). For the meta-analysis a dataset containing information from each of the individual studies was created. Data included information such as type, degree, duration and circumstances of hyperflexion applied in that particular study as well as information on the horses (e.g., sport discipline, level of training, breed) and on the study design (e.g., size of study and experimental or epidemiological research design). The results of the study regarding the impact of hyperflexion on a) welfare and b) gymnastics were coded as positive (1), insignificant or contradictory (0) or negative (-1). The significant majority of studies (88%) concluded that a hyperflexed head and neck posture negatively impacts welfare. Just one study suggested welfare advantages of training in a hyperflexed head and neck posture. An analysis using a generalized linear mixed model to assess the influence of the above factors collated in the dataset revealed that none of these factors significantly influenced the probability of a study to detect negative welfare implications. Thus hyperflexing the neck appears to impair horses’ welfare regardless of, for example, the duration or the way of achieving hyperflexion. A concurrent assessment of the evidence for gymnastic benefits showed that approximately one quarter of studies conclude that there may be benefits, while another quarter of the studies conclude that hyperflexion has detrimental effects on gymnastics. Thus, on the costs-side there is a clear reduction in equine welfare and some undesirable gymnastic effects, as well as likely a compromised profile of the equestrian sports in public. Benefits, on the other hand, include some desirable gymnastic effects, and potentially increased control of the horse for the rider. On balance, it appears that the costs associated with hyperflexion exceed the potential benefits of the activity to both humans and horses. |
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König von Borstel, U. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5872 |
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McGreevy, P. |
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Title |
Equine Behavior A Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists |
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2012 |
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Chapter 1 – Introduction, Pages 1-36
Chapter 2 – Perception, Pages 37-54
Chapter 3 – Behavior and the brain, Pages 55-84, Caroline Hahn
Chapter 4 – Learning, Pages 85-118
Chapter 5 – Social behavior, Pages 119-150
Chapter 6 – Communication, Pages 151-163
Chapter 7 – Locomotory behavior, Pages 165-187
Chapter 8 – Ingestive behavior, Pages 189-215
Chapter 9 – Eliminative behavior, Pages 217-221
Chapter 10 – Body care, Pages 223-243
Chapter 11 – Behavior of the stallion, Pages 245-264
Chapter 12 – Behavior of the mare, Pages 265-290
Chapter 13 – Training, Pages 291-311, Andrew McLean, Paul McGreevy
Chapter 14 – Handling and transport, Pages 313-329
Chapter 15 – Miscellaneous unwelcome behaviors, their causes and resolution, Pages 331-345
Further reading, Page 347
Glossary, Pages 351-356
Index, Pages 357-369 |
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978-0-7020-2634-8 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6154 |
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McGreevy, P.; Yeates, J. |
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Title |
Horses (Equus caballus) |
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2018 |
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Companion Animal Care and Welfare |
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animal company; behavioural signs; diseases; domestic horses; euthanasia; human interaction; nutritional requirements |
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Summary Domestic horses are equid members of the class Mammalia, order Perissodactyla, and family Equidae. Horses are obligate herbivores, with nutritional requirements as listed in a table. Adequate space is necessary for exercise, exploration, flight, sharing resources, play, and rolling. Company is essential for all horses, including stallions. Company provides opportunities for mutual grooming and play and allows horses to stand head-to-tail to remove flies. Unhandled horses may respond to humans as they would to predators, whereas handled horses' responses depend on their previous interactions with humans. Horses can suffer from several diseases as listed in another table. The best method of euthanasia of horses is usually sedation followed by either cranial shooting or the injection of an overdose of pentobarbitone into the jugular vein. Behavioural signs of distress can include increased locomotory activity, vigilance behaviours, neighing, snorting, pawing, nibbling walls and buckets, defaecation, rearing, kicking stable walls or doors, and high-stepping 'prancing'. |
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Wiley Online Books |
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Companion Animal Care and Welfare |
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9781119333708 |
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doi:10.1002/9781119333708.ch13 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6506 |
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