Murray, R. C., Dyson, S. J., Tranquille, C., & Adams, V. (2006). Association of type of sport and performance level with anatomical site of orthopaedic injury diagnosis. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 411–416.
Abstract: REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Although anecdotal reports of increased orthopaedic injury risk in equine sports exist, there is little scientific evidence to support this. OBJECTIVES: To test whether horses undertaking a single competitive sport have increased risk of specific injuries compared to those used for general purpose riding (GP); and whether injury type varies with sport category and performance level. METHODS: Data from 1069 records of horses undergoing orthopaedic evaluation (1998-2003) and meeting inclusion criteria were reviewed. Sport category (GP, showjumping, dressage, eventing, racing), level (nonelite or elite) and diagnosis were recorded. Effects of sport category and level on probability of a specific diagnosis were assessed using chi-squared tests. Logistic regression was used to determine which competitive sports and levels increased risk of injury compared with GP. RESULTS: Overall there was a significant effect of sport category and level on diagnosis (P<0.0001). There was significant difference between anatomical site injured and sport category (P<0.0001); a high risk of forelimb superficial digital flexor tendon injury in elite eventing (P<0.0001) and elite showjumping (P = 0.02); distal deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) injury in elite showjumping (P = 0.002); and hindlimb suspensory ligament injury in elite (P<0.0001) and nonelite (P = 0.001) dressage. There was a low risk of tarsal injury in elite eventing (P = 0.01) and proximal DDFT injury in dressage (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Horses competing in different sports are predisposed to specific injuries; particular sports may increase the risk of injury at certain anatomical sites; and the type and site of injury may reflect the type and level of performance. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These findings could guide clinicians in the diagnosis of sport related injuries.
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Meershoek, L. S., Roepstorff, L., Schamhardt, H. C., Johnston, C., & Bobbert, M. F. (2001). Joint moments in the distal forelimbs of jumping horses during landing. Equine Vet J, 33(4), 410–415.
Abstract: Tendon injuries are an important problem in athletic horses and are probably caused by excessive loading of the tendons during demanding activities. As a first step towards understanding these injuries, the tendon loading was quantified during jump landings. Kinematics and ground reaction forces were collected from the leading and trailing forelimbs of 6 experienced jumping horses. Joint moments were calculated using inverse dynamic analysis. It was found that the variation of movement and loading patterns was small, both within and between horses. The peak flexor joint moments in the coffin and fetlock joints were larger in the trailing limb (-0.62 and -2.44 Nm/kg bwt, respectively) than in the leading limb (-0.44 and -1.93 Nm/kg bwt, respectively) and exceeded literature values for trot by 82 and 45%. Additionally, there was an extensor coffin joint moment in the first half of the stance phase of the leading limb (peak value 0.26+/-0.18 Nm/kg bwt). From these results, it was concluded that the loading of the flexor tendons during landing was higher in the trailing than in the leading limb and that there was an unexpected loading of the extensor tendon in the leading limb.
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Maros, K., Boross, B., & Kubinyi, E. (2010). Approach and follow behaviour – possible indicators of the human-horse relationship. In Interaction Studies (Vol. 11, pp. 410–427).
Abstract: The aim of our study was to analyze the behavioural responses of horses (N = 51) to familiar humans and to find factors that may affect these responses in three tests: (1) approach to, (2) standing beside, and (3) following the familiar person. We investigated the impacts of horse-related factors (gender and age) and human-related factors (type of work, housing management, amount of handling, number of handlers and training to follow).<br xmlns=“http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/”></br> Horses with one handler needed less time to approach the human than horses with more handlers. Standing beside the human correlated positively with following. Following was mainly affected by training.<br xmlns=“http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/”></br> According to our results, the number of handlers has an important effect on horses' responses to familiar humans, especially regarding approach and follow behaviour. However, following behaviour is fundamentally determined by training.
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Ferguson, D. L., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2001). Loading the problem loader: the effects of target training and shaping on trailer-loading behavior of horses. J Appl Behav Anal, 34(4), 409–423.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop an effective method for trailer loading horses based on principles of positive reinforcement. Target training and shaping were used to teach trailer-loading behavior to 5 quarter horse mares in a natural setting. All 5 had been trailer loaded before through the use of aversive stimulation. Successive approximations to loading and inappropriate behaviors were the dependent variables. After training a horse to approach a target, the target was moved to various locations inside the trailer. Horses started training on the left side of a two-horse trailer. After a horse was loading on the left side, she was moved to the right side, then to loading half on the right and half on the left. A limited-hold procedure and the presence of a companion horse seemed to facilitate training for 1 horse. Inappropriate behaviors fell to zero immediately after target training, and all the horses successfully completed the shaping sequence. Finally, these effects were observed to generalize to novel conditions (a different trainer and a different trailer).
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Bourjade, M., Moulinot, M., Henry, S., & Richard-Yris, M. - A. H. M. (2008). Could Adults be Used to Improve Social Skills of Young Horses, Equus caballus? Ethology, 50(4), 408–417.
Abstract: We investigated the effects of the introduction of foreign adults on the behavior of young horses. First, we observed the behavior of 1- and 2-year-old domestic horses housed in same-age and same-sex groups (a standard housing system, but different from a natural situation). Then, two same-sex adults were introduced into each experimental group. Observations made before, during and after an introduction indicated that young horses reared in homogeneous groups of young had different behaviors compared to other domestic horses reared under more socially natural conditions. After the introduction of adults, young horses expressed new behaviors, preferential social associations emerged, positive social behavior increased and agonistic interactions decreased. These results have important implications both for understanding the influence that adults may have on the behavior of young horses, and in terms of husbandry, indicating the importance of keeping young horses with adults, although further studies are still necessary. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 50: 408-417, 2008.
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Westerduin, F. E., Lankveld, D. P. K., van der Velden, M. A., Back, W., & Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M. (2003). [Splenectomy in a dressage pony: end of sports career?]. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd, 128(13), 406–411.
Abstract: A 14-year-old Arabian cross-bred gelding was referred to the University Clinic because of mild, recurrent signs of colic for 5 days. The pony showed icteric mucous membranes, haemolytic blood, and dark coloured urine. Internal examination did not give a clear diagnosis. Unidentified intra-abdominal strands were found and haemorrhagic abdominocentesis led to the decision to perform an exploratory laparatomy. An extremely enlarged spleen was the sole finding. A splenal biopsy sample was taken and surgery was completed. The pony remained colicky, so the spleen was examined by ultrasonography. After this examination, the tentative diagnosis 'tumour of the spleen' was made and splenectomy was performed. Pathological examination of the spleen revealed splenomegaly caused by infarctions of unknown origin. Eight weeks after surgery, the pony started again in dressage competition. Six months after splenectomy, the pony won the provincial dressage competition.
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Winkelmayr, B., Peham, C., Fruhwirth, B., Licka, T., & Scheidl, M. (2006). Evaluation of the force acting on the back of the horse with an English saddle and a side saddle at walk, trot and canter. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 406–410.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Force transmission under an English saddle (ES) at walk, trot and canter is commonly evaluated, but the influence of a side saddle (SS) on the equine back has not been documented. HYPOTHESIS: Force transmission under a SS, with its asymmetric construction, is different from an ES in walk, trot and canter, expressed in maximum overall force (MOF), force in the quarters of the saddle mat, and centre of pressure (COP). The biomechanics of the equine back are different under a SS compared to ES. METHODS: Thirteen horses without clinical signs of back pain ridden in an indoor riding school with both saddles were measured using an electronic saddle sensor pad. Synchronous kinematic measurements were carried out with tracing markers placed along the back in front of (withers, W) and behind the saddle (4th lumbar vertebra, L4). At least 6 motion cycles at walk, trot and canter with both saddles (ES, SS) were measured. Out of the pressure distribution the maximum overall force (MOF) and the location of the centre of pressure (COP) were calculated. RESULTS: Under the SS the centre of pressure was located to the right of the median and slightly caudal compared to the COP under the ES in all gaits. The MOF was significantly different (P<0.01) between saddles. At walk, L4 showed significantly larger (P<0.01) vertical excursions under the ES. Under the SS relative horizontal movement of W was significantly reduced (P<0.01) at trot, and at canter the transversal movement was significantly reduced (P<0.01) . In both trot and canter, no significant differences in the movement of L4 were documented. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The results demonstrate that the load under a SS creates asymmetric force transmission under the saddle, and also influences back movement. To change the load distribution on the back of horses with potential back pain and as a training variation, a combination of both riding styles is suitable.
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Pitchford, R. J., Visser, P. S., du Toit, J. F., de Pienaar, U. V., & Young, E. (1973). Observations on the ecology of Schistosoma mattheei Veglia & Le Roux, 1929, in portion of the Kruger National Park and surrounding area using a new quantitative technique for egg output. J S Afr Vet Assoc, 44(4), 405–420.
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Abbruzzetti, S., Crema, E., Masino, L., Vecli, A., Viappiani, C., Small, J. R., et al. (2000). Fast events in protein folding: structural volume changes accompanying the early events in the N-->I transition of apomyoglobin induced by ultrafast pH jump. Biophys J, 78(1), 405–415.
Abstract: Ultrafast, laser-induced pH jump with time-resolved photoacoustic detection has been used to investigate the early protonation steps leading to the formation of the compact acid intermediate (I) of apomyoglobin (ApoMb). When ApoMb is in its native state (N) at pH 7.0, rapid acidification induced by a laser pulse leads to two parallel protonation processes. One reaction can be attributed to the binding of protons to the imidazole rings of His24 and His119. Reaction with imidazole leads to an unusually large contraction of -82 +/- 3 ml/mol, an enthalpy change of 8 +/- 1 kcal/mol, and an apparent bimolecular rate constant of (0.77 +/- 0.03) x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1). Our experiments evidence a rate-limiting step for this process at high ApoMb concentrations, characterized by a value of (0. 60 +/- 0.07) x 10(6) s(-1). The second protonation reaction at pH 7. 0 can be attributed to neutralization of carboxylate groups and is accompanied by an apparent expansion of 3.4 +/- 0.2 ml/mol, occurring with an apparent bimolecular rate constant of (1.25 +/- 0.02) x 10(11) M(-1) s(-1), and a reaction enthalpy of about 2 kcal/mol. The activation energy for the processes associated with the protonation of His24 and His119 is 16.2 +/- 0.9 kcal/mol, whereas that for the neutralization of carboxylates is 9.2 +/- 0.9 kcal/mol. At pH 4.5 ApoMb is in a partially unfolded state (I) and rapid acidification experiments evidence only the process assigned to carboxylate protonation. The unusually large contraction and the high energetic barrier observed at pH 7.0 for the protonation of the His residues suggests that the formation of the compact acid intermediate involves a rate-limiting step after protonation.
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Huebener, E. (2006). How the Horse-Appropriate “Self-Acting” Leg Aid Could Be Better Communicated. Tierärztl. Umschau, 8, 403.
Abstract: From the base to the top of the sport horses are being coerced into “obedience” or the performance of exercises by force. Campaigns against the “Rollkur” or “Hyperflexion” fill the media. However the root of evil lies a lot deeper. The base of cultured riding in high harmony between horse and rider are sensitive, almost invisible aids which are being timed by the movements of the horse's back and trunk. Anchoring the knowledge of this interrelation in rider's minds has to this day been unsuccessful.
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