Abstract: The effects of hyperflexion on the welfare of dressage horses have been debated. This study aimed to investigate acute stress responses of dressage horses ridden in three different Head-and-Neck-positions (HNPs). Fifteen dressage horses were ridden by their usual rider in a standardised 10-min dressage programme in either the competition frame (CF), hyperflexion (“Low-Deep-and-Round”; LDR) or a looser frame (LF) in a balanced order on three separate test days. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability parameters (HRV), behaviour and rein tension were recorded during the test. Salivary cortisol concentrations were measured 60min before and 0, 5, 15 and 30min after the test. Rein tension was significantly lower in LF and did not differ between CF and LDR; however approx. 15% of recordings in CF and LDR were above the sensor detection limit of 5kg. The horses had significantly higher cortisol concentrations directly after LDR compared to LF. In addition, the horses showed more distinctive head movements, including head waving, during LDR. There were no significant treatment effects on HR and HRV. In conclusion, the results indicate that LDR may be more stressful to these horses during riding.

Abstract: Most horses are trained by negative reinforcement. Currently, however, no standardised test for evaluating horses' negative reinforcement learning ability is available. The aim of this study was to develop an objective test to investigate negative reinforcement learning in horses. Twenty-four Icelandic horses (3 years old) were included in this study. The horses were tested in a pressure-release task on three separate days with 10, 7 and 5 trials on each side, respectively. Each trial consisted of pressure being applied on the hindquarter with an algometer. The force of the pressure was increased until the horse moved laterally away from the point of pressure. There was a significant decrease in required force over trials on the first test day (P<0.001), but not the second and third day. The intercepts on days 2 and 3 differed significantly from day 1 (P<0.001), but not each other. Significantly stronger force was required on the right side compared to the left (P<0.001), but there was no difference between first and second side tested (P=0.56). Individual performance was evaluated by median-force and the change in force over trials on the first test day. These two measures may explain different characteristics of negative reinforcement learning. In conclusion, this study presents a novel, standardised test for evaluating negative reinforcement learning ability in horses.

Abstract: In the wake of telling critiques of the foundations on which earlier conclusions were based, the last 15 years have witnessed a renaissance in the study of social learning in apes. As a result, we are able to review 31 experimental studies from this period in which social learning in chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans has been investigated. The principal question framed at the beginning of this era, Do apes ape? has been answered in the affirmative, at least in certain conditions. The more interesting question now is, thus, How do apes ape? Answering this question has engendered richer taxonomies of the range of social-learning processes at work and new methodologies to uncover them. Together, these studies suggest that apes ape by employing a portfolio of alternative social-learning processes in flexibly adaptive ways, in conjunction with nonsocial learning. We conclude by sketching the kind of decision tree that appears to underlie the deployment of these alternatives.

Abstract: Während die traditionellen Pferdesportdisziplinen Dressur- und Springreiten Mitglieder verlieren, haben sich weitere Pferdesportarten in Deutschland etabliert und erfreuen sich wachsender Beliebtheit. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den Hintergründen dieser Entwicklung. In einer empirischen Untersuchung wurden 1814 Reiter zu ihren Reitmotiven befragt. Mit Hilfe von Hauptkomponenten- und Clusteranalyse wurde eine Typologie gebildet, die ein differenziertes Bild der Motive verschiedener Reitergruppen ermöglicht. Während die leistungsorientierten Reiter eher in klassischen Reitsportdisziplinen vertreten sind, dominieren in moderneren Reitsportdisziplinen vor allem Genussmotive. Insgesamt entwickelt sich der Trend im Reitsport deutlich vom Drill in der Reitbahn hin zu mehr Entspannung, Erholung und Selbstverwirklichung. Der Wunsch, in der Freizeit Leistung zu bringen, sich mit anderen zu messen und Erfolg zu haben, ist nur noch für einen kleineren Teil der Pferdesportler bedeutsam. Aus der Verteilung der Motive ergeben sich neue Herausforderungen für den organisierten Reitsport, um den Spagat zwischen den Anforderungen der leistungsorientierten Sportreiter und den Erholungssuchenden zu meistern.

Abstract: Animal management often involves procedures that, while unlikely to cause physical pain, still cause aversive responses. The domestic horse (Equus caballus) regularly has excessive hair clipped off to facilitate its use as a riding/driving animal and this procedure causes adverse behavioral responses in some animals. The aim of this study was to compare behavioral and physiological measures to assess the aversive effect of this procedure. Ten horses were selected on the basis of being either compliant (C: n=5) or non-compliant (NC: n=5) during this procedure. The horses were subjected to a sham clipping procedure (SC: where the blades had been removed from the clippers) for a period of ten minutes. Measures were taken pre, during and post SC (-10min to +30min) and mean values calculated for ALL horses and for C and NC separately. Behavioral activity was scored (scale 1-5) by twenty students from video footage in (phase/group-blind scoring). Heart rate (HR), salivary cortisol and eye temperature were monitored throughout the procedure. The NC horses were found to be significantly more behaviorally active/less relaxed throughout the trial than C horses (p<0.05) with the greatest difference occurring during the SC procedure (p<0.01). NC horses were more active/less relaxed during, compared with pre or post SC (p<0.05), but showed no behavioral difference pre and post SC. HR of the NC horses was higher than that of the C horses throughout the trial but only significantly so after 10min of SC (p<0.01). ALL horses showed a significant increase in HR between +5 and +10min into the procedure (p<0.05). There was a significant increase in salivary cortisol concentration in ALL horses post procedure (p<0.01) with levels peaking at 20minute post SC. No significant differences in salivary cortisol concentration between C and NC were found at any stage of the trial. Eye temperature increased significantly in ALL horses during SC, peaking at +10min into the procedure (p<0.05) and then decreased substantially when SC had ceased (p<0.01). Although no significant differences were found between C and NC per se, there was a significant interaction between group and phase of trial (p<0.05) with the NC group showing a greater decrease in eye temperature post SC. There was a significant positive correlation between changes in salivary cortisol concentration and eye temperature (p<0.01) but no correlation between any of the other measures. Although the behavioral response of C and NC to this procedure was significantly different the physiological responses indicated that ALL horses found the procedure aversive. Eye temperature could be used as an objective and immediate measure of how an animal is responding to a specific situation in order to evaluate management procedures and adapt them where appropriate to reduce the negative impact on animal health and welfare.