|
|
Lloyd, A. S., Martin, J. E., Bornett-Gauci, H. L. I., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2007). Evaluation of a novel method of horse personality assessment: Rater-agreement and links to behaviour. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 105(1-3), 205–222.
Abstract: The efficacy of questionnaire-based personality assessment has been shown in a variety of animal and human personality studies. There has been a recent increase in questionnaire-based studies focussing on equine personality but with a lack of comparability to studies on other species. The aim of this study was to test the reliability of an assessment method originally developed for primates and demonstrate reliability using three criteria (1) assessments by independent observers must agree with one another, (2) these assessments must predict behaviours and real-world outcomes and (3) observer ratings must be shown to reflect genuine attributes of the individuals rated, not merely the observer's implicit personality theories about how traits co-vary. The personality of 61 horses (Equus caballus) was assessed using a questionnaire constructed of 30 behaviourally defined adjectives (BDAs). Horses were each assessed by three judges, in addition to a total of 2 h behaviour observations recorded per horse. Rater agreement was demonstrated for 72.1% of the horses and 25 of the BDAs. Principal component analysis was carried out on the rating data and revealed six underlying personality components that were labelled “dominance”, “anxiousness”, “excitability”, “protection”, “sociability” and “inquisitiveness”. Component scores for horses were correlated against behavioural observations for the same horses and revealed significant correlations with 20 of the recorded behaviour variables. Correlations between specific components and their associated behaviours were logical and consistent with the types of behaviours that would be expected to be linked with such personality types. The data were shown to meet all three criteria and provided strong evidence that the assessment method was reliably measuring horse personality.
|
|
|
|
Ernst, K., Puppe, B., Schon, P. C., & Manteuffel, G. (2005). A complex automatic feeding system for pigs aimed to induce successful behavioural coping by cognitive adaptation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 91(3-4), 205–218.
Abstract: In modern intensive husbandry systems there is an increasing tendency for animals to interact with technical equipment. If the animal-technology interface is well-designed this may improve animal welfare by offering challenges for cognitive adaptation. Here a system and its application is presented that acoustically calls individual pigs out of a group (n = 8) to a feeding station. In three different learning phases, the computer-controlled “call-feeding-station” (CFS) trained the animals to recognize a specific acoustic signal as a summons for food, using a combination of classical and operant conditioning techniques. The experimental group's stall contained four CFSs, at each of which one animal at a time was able to feed. When an animal had learned to discriminate and recognize its individual acoustic signal it had to localize the particular CFS that was calling and to enter inside it. Then, it received a portion of feed, the amount of which was adapted to the respective age of the animals. Each animal was called at several, unpredictable times each day and the computer programme ensured that the total feed supply was sufficient for each animal. In the last phase of the experiment the animals, in addition, had to press a button with an increasing fixed ratio for the delivery of feed. It was demonstrated that the pigs were able to adapt quickly to the CFSs. Although they were challenged over 12 h daily by requirements of attention, sensory localization and motor efforts to gain comparatively low amounts of feed, they performed well and reached fairly constant success rates between 90 and 95% and short delays between 14 and 16 s between a summons and the food release in the last phase of the experiment. The weight gain during the experiment was the same as in a conventionally fed control group (n = 8). We therefore conclude that CFSs present a positive challenge to the animals with no negative effects on performance but with a potentially beneficial role for welfare and against boredom. The system is also a suitable experimental platform for research on the effects of successful adaptation by rewarded cognitive processes in pigs.
|
|
|
|
Duncan, I. J. H. (1995). D.G.M. Wood-Gush Memorial Lecture: An applied ethologist looks at the question “Why?”. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 44(2-4), 205–217.
Abstract: The question “Why does an animal behave as it does?” can be answered in terms of ontogeny, function, phylogeny and causation. The achievements of applied ethology relative to those four approaches are reviewed, gaps in our knowledge are identified and predictions for fruitful avenues of future research are made. Ontogenic studies have been useful in the past and it is suggested that studies of the effects of early experience on the sexual behaviour of animals used in artificial breeding schemes might pay dividends. It is proposed that functional studies should be approached cautiously. More information is required on the process of domestication in order to increase the chances of success in the trend to farm exotic species. Studies on causation are likely to continue to be the mainstay of applied ethological research. It is suggested that within this category, studies on states of suffering, motivation and cognition are urgently required to answer the most pressing questions on animal welfare.
|
|
|
|
Nicol, C. J., Badnell-Waters, A. J., Bice, R., Kelland, A., Wilson, A. D., & Harris, P. A. (2005). The effects of diet and weaning method on the behaviour of young horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 95(3-4), 205–221.
Abstract: The effects of diet on horse behaviour have not previously been quantified in detail. In this study, we examined the behaviour of 17 foals from the age of 2 to 40 weeks. Each foal received either a starch and sugar (SS) diet or a fat and fibre (FF) diet. The two diets contained similar digestible energy, crude protein and micronutrients, but differed in the fat and non-structural carbohydrate balance. The baseline behaviour of the foals was observed every 2 weeks by focal animal sampling. Additional behavioural observations were conducted when the foals were weaned by one of two methods. Approximately 2 months after weaning, the temperament and tractability of the young horses was assessed using standardised tests. Responses to a novel object, to a novel person, and during a handling test were observed and quantified. Horses grew well on both diets with no apparent effects of diet on growth rate or baseline behaviour. Immediately after weaning, horses receiving the FF diet cantered less frequently (F = 5.10; p < 0.05), for a shorter duration (F = 7.23; p < 0.05) and appeared to be more settled. Foals that were barn-weaned appeared more stressed than foals that were paddock-weaned. In the temperament tests, horses receiving the FF diet spent significantly more time investigating (F = 6.78; p < 0.05), and less time looking at (F = 7.93; p < 0.05), the novel object than horses receiving the SS diet. They also spent less time walking away from the novel person (F = 5.16; p < 0.05) and their time taken to complete the handling test was significantly lower (F = 8.72; p = 0.01). Overall, the horses that received the FF diet appeared less distressed immediately after weaning and seemed calmer and more inquisitive during a range of temperament tests.
|
|
|
|
Marinier, S. L., & Alexander, A. J. (1991). Selective grazing behaviour in horses: development of methodology and preliminary use of tests to measure individual grazing ability. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 30(3-4), 203–221.
Abstract: Methods are described to assess horses' selective grazing ability that includes choosing, sorting and the adaptive value of this behaviour. Choosing ability was tested by the experimenter presenting pairs of cut plant species that were then alternated at each presentation until the test horse had taken three bites of one of the plant pair. The results were analysed in relation to five measures of choosing behaviour: (1) the strength of the choice; (2) correspondence between first bite and the final choice; (3) constancy of the choice over a number of trials; (4) the comparison of the horses' ranking of the species over a number of trials; (5) the constancy of the linear arrangement of the plants over a number of trials. Sorting ability was tested using two methods. A mixture of two plant species was presented either in a clamp or loose in a trough. Results were based on number and weight of plant residues. The adaptive value of the behaviour related to the bitterness of toxic plants. This bitterness was represented in testing by quinine sulphate and a poisonous Senecio species. An extremely bitter substance “Bitrex” was also used in this context but was totally accepted by the horses. The horses' reactions to these substances were monitored using a behavioural score chart. The results from 12 horses revealed that the horses differed individually in their grazing ability. On this basis, the horses were classified as efficient, semi-efficient, or inefficient grazers. This finding has practical implications in deciding which horses may safely graze on pastures infested with toxic plants.
|
|
|
|
Hagen, K., & Broom, D. M. (2004). Emotional reactions to learning in cattle. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 85(3), 203–213.
Abstract: It has been suggested that during instrumental learning, animals are likely to react emotionally to the reinforcer. They may in addition react emotionally to their own achievements. These reactions are of interest with regard to the animals' capacity for self-awareness. Therefore, we devised a yoked control experiment involving the acquisition of an operant task. We aimed to identify the emotional reactions of young cattle to their own learning and to separate these from reactions to a food reward. Twelve Holstein-Friesian heifers aged 7-12 months were divided into two groups. Heifers in the experimental group were conditioned over a 14-day period to press a panel in order to open a gate for access to a food reward. For heifers in the control group, the gate opened after a delay equal to their matched partner's latency to open it. To allow for observation of the heifers' movements during locomotion after the gate had opened, there was a 15m distance in the form of a race from the gate to the food trough. The heart rate of the heifers, and their behaviour when moving along the race towards the food reward were measured. When experimental heifers made clear improvements in learning, they were more likely than on other occasions to have higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race in comparison with their controls. This experiment found some, albeit inconclusive, indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement.
|
|
|
|
Hanggi, E. B. (2003). Discrimination learning based on relative size concepts in horses (Equus caballus). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 83(3), 201–213.
Abstract: This study explored whether or not horses (Equus caballus) could respond to stimuli using a concept based on relative size. In Experiment 1, after learning to respond to the larger of the two stimuli for six sets of two-dimensional (2D) training exemplars, one horse was tested for size transposition that used novel larger and smaller stimuli as well as three-dimensional (3D) objects (5 two-dimensional sets and 5 three-dimensional sets with large, medium, small, and tiny sizes). The horse correctly chose (significantly above chance) the larger of two stimuli regardless of novelty or dimension or combination. In Experiment 2, two additional horses were tested using a subset of the stimuli from Experiment 1. One horse was required to select the larger stimulus--as in Experiment 1--and the other the smaller stimulus. After learning the task, both horses responded correctly to new stimuli and showed size transposition. These results suggest that at least some horses are capable of solving problems based on relative size concepts. Moreover, they are able to generalize across situations that vary from flat, black shapes to objects of different materials and colors including balls, flower pots, and PVC connectors. These findings support earlier research that showed that horses could categorize certain stimuli, and provide new evidence that they are capable of using some form of concept for problem solving. Understanding that horses have more advanced learning abilities than was previously believed should help improve training methods and management.
|
|
|
|
McCann, J. S., Heird, J. C., Bell, R. W., & Lutherer, L. O. (1988). Normal and more highly reactive horses. I. Heart rate, respiration rate and behavioral observations. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 19(3-4), 201–214.
Abstract: Thirty-two Quarter horse yearlings were utilized in a split-plot experiment to establish behavioral tendencies for two levels of emotionality; normal and a more highly reactive level of emotionality termed nervous. Four observers who were experienced with horses scored the yearlings on an emotionality scale from 1 to 4, with 1 representing the highly nervous yearlings and 4 representing the quiet yearlings. Emotionality evaluations were based upon the response of the yearlings to a standard regimen of standing in a chute, being identified and being released from the chute. The inter-rater reliability coefficients were 0.90 for the normal yearlings and 0.65 for the nervous yearlings, indicating that the raters agreed less when evaluating the nervous yearlings. Yearling heart rates in the chute were correlated (r = -0.54, P<0.002) with the average emotionality score. Observational data on behavior collected 2 days following the emotionality scoring procedure indicated that the normal yearlings maintained a greater (P<0.001) individual distance than the nervous yearlings. From an activity summary, the normal yearlings spent 10.9% of the time lying down (LD), 79.1% standing (S), 9.6% walking or trotting (WT) and 0.4% of the time cantering or galloping (CG). The nervous yearlings spent 5.7% of the observational periods LD, 79.2% S, 11.7% WT and 3.4% CG. The nervous yearlings tended to have a higher overall activity index level than did the normal yearlings. Results indicate horses of different emotionality levels exhibited different behavioral patterns.
|
|
|
|
Christensen, J. W., Søndergaard, E., Thodberg, K., & Halekoh, U. (2011). Effects of repeated regrouping on horse behaviour and injuries. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 133(3), 199–206.
Abstract: Domestic horses are faced with social challenges throughout their lives due to limitations in social contact, space restrictions and frequent changes in social companionship. This is in contrast to natural conditions where horses live in relatively stable harem bands. Currently, little is known about how repeated regrouping affect horse behaviour and welfare, and it is unknown whether horses may adapt to regrouping. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of an unstable group structure, caused by weekly regroupings, on behaviour and frequency of injuries in young horses. Forty-five horses were included in the study and were randomly assigned to the treatments; Stable (S; seven groups of three horses) or Unstable (U; eight groups of three horses). The experimental period lasted 7 weeks, during which horses in Stable groups remained in the same group, whereas one horse was exchanged between Unstable groups every week. The groups were kept in 80m×80m grass-covered enclosures and were fed additional roughage on the ground daily. Social interactions were recorded in Unstable groups immediately after each regrouping (30min), and in both Stable and Unstable groups on day 1, 3 and 6 after each regrouping (2×20min/group/day). Injuries were scored by the end of the experimental period. The level of aggression shown by horses in Unstable groups immediately after regrouping was not affected by week (F5,35=0.42, P=0.83), indicating that horses neither habituated, nor sensitized, to repeated regrouping. Compared to horses in Stable groups, more agonistic behaviour was shown by horses in Unstable groups (i.e. non-contact agonistic; F1,65=5.60, P=0.02), whereas there was no treatment effect on other variables. The level of play behaviour appeared, however, to be more variable in Unstable groups. There was a significant effect of week on the level of contact agonistic interactions as well as greeting behaviour, due to a high occurrence in weeks 4-6. Non-contact agonistic interactions constituted the major part of agonistic interactions (66%). Possibly as consequence, no serious injuries were registered and there was no treatment effect (U=184; P=0.11). We conclude that the behaviour of young horses is affected by group management, and that horses appear not to adapt to weekly regroupings.
|
|
|
|
Crowell-Davis, S. L. (1994). Daytime rest behavior of the Welsh pony (Equus caballus) mare and foal. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 40(3-4), 197–210.
Abstract: Upright and recumbent rest of 15 Welsh pony foals and their mothers was studied over a 2 year period. During their first week of life, the foals spent 32% of the time in recumbent rest. Subsequently, the percentage of time spent in recumbent rest decreased, but was still greater than for the foal's mother by Week 21, when the foals spent 6.5% of their time in recumbent rest. Adults spent little time in recumbent rest. Foals rested upright only 3.5% of the time during their first week of life. Mares rested upright more than foals did to Week 13, at which time peak values for time spent in upright rest occurred for both mares (32.5%) and foals (23%). Subsequently, mares and foals spent equal, but decreasing, amounts of time resting upright. The total time spent resting by the foals decreased gradually, and was characterized by a transition from recumbent rest to upright rest. Foals were more likely to be resting, either recumbent or upright, if their mother was resting upright. During the late spring, summer, and early autumn, mares and foals were most likely to be resting upright between 09:00 and 17:00 h.
|
|
