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Bottom, S. H. Age-related changes in taste and gustatory response and feeding behaviour in the stabled horse.. Nottingham, UK: Nottingham Trent University.
Abstract: There is a paucity of research relating to the anatomy and physiology of gustation and olfaction in the horse. Moreover, whilst an age-related decline in gustation and olfaction has been recorded in humans, no such study has been conducted in the horse. The horse is reliant on gustation and olfaction to make appropriate decisions relating to both short and long term diet selection and thus, any compromise in function, has implications for food intake and potentially welfare. The principal aim of this study was to establish if, and to what extent, taste andgustatory responses are affected by age in the horse. Horses were allocated to the age groups Young (2-5 years), Middle (8-14 years) and Old (16 plus years) for the study of taste (n=18) and to Young (4-6 years), Middle (10-14 years) and Old (16 plus years) for the study of gustation (n=18). Individual taste responses and gustatory responses (taste in the absence of additional olfactory cues) were identified using two-choice preference testing and monadic testing. Statistical analysis was conducted using Minitab 14.0 and behaviour data was analysed using The Observer 5.0 (Noldus, Netherlands). No effect of age on taste response or gustatory response was recorded.
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Hunt, G. R., Gray R.D., & Taylor, A. H. (2013). Why is tool use rare in animals? (Boesch C C. J. anz C, Ed.). Cambridge, MA.: Cambridge University Press.
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Janczarek, I., Wisniewska, A., Chruszczewski, M. H., Tkaczyk, E., & Górecka-Bruzda, A. (2020). Social Behaviour of Horses in Response to Vocalisations of Predators. Animals, 10(2331).
Abstract: We tested the hypothesis that social defensive responses to the vocalisation of a predator still exist in horses. The recordings of a grey wolf, an Arabian leopard and a golden jackal were played to 20 Konik polski and Arabian mares. Durations of grazing, standing still, standing alert and the number of steps in walk and trot/canter were measured. In one-minute scans, the distances of the focal horse from the reference horse (DIST-RH) and from the nearest loudspeaker (DIST-LS) were approximated. The vocalisation of a leopard aroused the Arabians more than the Koniks (less grazing, stand-still and walk, more stand-alert and trotting/cantering). Koniks showed more relaxed behaviours to the leopard vocalisation (more grazing, stand-still and walk), but high alertness to the wolf playback (stand-alert, trotting/cantering). Spatial formation of the herd of Koniks showed tight grouping (lower DIST-RH) and maintaining distance from the potential threat (DIST-LS) in response to the wolf howling, while the Arabians approached the loudspeakers in linear herd formation when the leopard growls were played. Adult horses responded to potential predation by changing spatial group formations. This ability to apply a social strategy may be one of the explanations for the least number of horses among all hunted farm animal species.
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Solmsen, E. - H., Bathen, M., Grüntjens, T., Hempel, E., Klose, M., Krüger, K., et al. (2021). Protecting horses against wolves in Germany. CDPNews, 23.
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Klingel, H. (). Das Verhalten der Pferde (Equidae). Handb. o. Zool., 8(10), 1–68.
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Izraely, H., Choshniak, I., Shkolnik, A., Stevens, C. E., & Demment, M. W. (1989). Factors determining the digestive efficiency of the domesticated donkey.(Equus Asinus Asinus ). Q J Exp Physiol, 74(1), 1–6.
Abstract: Factors determining the digestive efficiency of donkeys were studied in animals fed either a low quality roughage (wheat straw: 77{middle dot}1% neutral detergent fibre, 2{middle dot}8% crude protein) or a high quality forage (alfalfa hay: 47{middle dot}5% neutral detergent fibre, 22{middle dot}7% crude protein). The neutral detergent fibre (NDF) intake when fed wheat straw was 1693 {+/-} 268 g animal-1 day-1, 10% higher than when fed alfalfa hay. Digestive coefficient of NDF and acid detergent fibre (ADF) when fed wheat straw amounted to 50{middle dot}9 {+/-} 4{middle dot}9 and 42{middle dot}0 {+/-} 4{middle dot}1% respectively. NDF and ADF apparent digestibilities and mean retention times (37{middle dot}7 {+/-} 1{middle dot}7 and 36{middle dot}4 {+/-} 3{middle dot}2 h respectively) were not significantly different (P [rang] 0{middle dot}05) between the two diets. The donkey appears to digest cell wall constituents as efficiently as the Bedouin goat when on low quality roughage, but less efficiently when fed alfalfa hay. Its energy digestibility is, however, as high as that reported for the Bedouin goat. The donkey's high energy digestibility is related to its capacity to digest soluble food components more efficiently than the ruminant. The mean retention time in the donkey is shorter than in the Bedouin goat and is consistent with its capacity to compensate for a lower quality diet by increasing its intake rate. Recycling of urea in donkeys maintained on wheat straw amounted to 75{middle dot}5 {+/-} 13{middle dot}0% of the entry rate. A decrease in the rate of renal urea filtration, coupled with an increase in the fraction reabsorbed, increased the retention of nitrogenous waste and permitted recycling of nitrogen into the gut. N1 -
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Caanitz, H., O'Leary, L., Houpt, K., Petersson, K., & Hintz, H. (1991). Effect of exercise on equine behavior. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 31(1-2), 1–12.
Abstract: The effect of short periods of strenuous exertion, in this case treadmill exercise, on the subsequent behavior of Standardbred horses was examined. Six horses were exercised on a high-speed treadmill 4 or 5 days per week, for 3-4 miles (approximately 1.8 m s-1 for 3 min, 5 m s-1 for 12 min, 9 m s-1 for 3 min, 3 m s-1 for 3 min, 1.8 m s-1 for 3 min). The behavior of the horses was observed in the horse's home stall immediately after exercise and 2-7 h after exercise. Focal animal sampling for a total of 150 h revealed that the horses spent significantly more time drinking and less time resting after exercise than they did on control (non-exercise or rest days). The greatest influence on behavior was seen immediately after exercise. The horses spent 13.2+/-2.7 s per 15 min drinking after exercise and 7.2+/-2.3 s per 15 min drinking on non-exercise days. They spent 7.3+/-1.5 min h-1 stand resting after exercise and 9.7+/-2.1 min h-1 on non-exercise days. These changes in behavior may be related to the physiological changes that accompany exercise. Eating, walking, elimination and self-grooming were not significantly influenced by exercise. In a second experiment the activities of two groups of six Standardbred mares were compared. One group was exercised on the treadmill and the other was not. The exercised horses spent more time drinking and lying, but urinated less than the non-exercised group.
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Tebbich, S., Taborsky, M., & Winkler, H. (1996). Social manipulation causes cooperation in keas.52(1), 1–10.
Abstract: Abstract. This study assessed whether keas,Nestor notabilis, are able to cooperate in an instrumental task. Seven birds of a captive group were tested in group situations and in dyads. At least two individuals had to manipulate an apparatus to obtain food but only one participant was rewarded. One bird had to push down a lever to enable another one to collect food from a box. The distribution of the two different roles was clearly dependent on hierarchy. The higher ranking individual always obtained the reward and each bird changed its role according to dominance status. Owing to the non-linear hierarchy in the group, each bird participating in cooperative interactions had at least one submissive partner. Therefore, in group situations the reward was distributed symmetrically and cooperation was persistent. In dyadic test situations, three individual keas aggressively manipulated their respective subordinate partners to open the apparatus. Their dominance status enabled them to force cooperation.
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Bshary, R., Wickler, W., & Fricke, H. (2002). Fish cognition: a primate's eye view. Anim. Cogn., 5(1), 1–13.
Abstract: We provide selected examples from the fish literature of phenomena found in fish that are currently being examined in discussions of cognitive abilities and evolution of neocortex size in primates. In the context of social intelligence, we looked at living in individualized groups and corresponding social strategies, social learning and tradition, and co-operative hunting. Regarding environmental intelligence, we searched for examples concerning special foraging skills, tool use, cognitive maps, memory, anti-predator behaviour, and the manipulation of the environment. Most phenomena of interest for primatologists are found in fish as well. We therefore conclude that more detailed studies on decision rules and mechanisms are necessary to test for differences between the cognitive abilities of primates and other taxa. Cognitive research can benefit from future fish studies in three ways: first, as fish are highly variable in their ecology, they can be used to determine the specific ecological factors that select for the evolution of specific cognitive abilities. Second, for the same reason they can be used to investigate the link between cognitive abilities and the enlargement of specific brain areas. Third, decision rules used by fish could be used as 'null-hypotheses' for primatologists looking at how monkeys might make their decisions. Finally, we propose a variety of fish species that we think are most promising as study objects.
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Landau, H. (1951). On dominance relations and the structure of animal societies: I. Effect of inherent characteristics. Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, 13(1), 1–19.
Abstract: Abstract Societies are considered in which a non-transitive dominance relation exists between every pair of members, such as the peck-right in a flock of hens. A one-dimensional measure of the structure of such a society,h, is defined, withh=0 for equality andh=1 for the hierarchy. It is assumed that each member of the society is characterized by an ability vector whose components depend on individual characteristics such as size, concentration of sex hormone, etc., but not on social factors such as social rank. The distribution of abilities among members of the society is assumed to be given by a distribution function which is the same for all members, and the probability that one member dominates another is given by a function of the ability vectors of the two. On these assumptions formulas for the expected (mean) value and variance ofh are determined in terms of the distribution and dominance probability functions. Some special cases are calculated, especially that for normany distributed abilities and dominance probability given by the normal probability integral. Several conclusions are derived. If all members are of equal ability, so that dominance probability is 1/2, then any sizable society is much more likely to be near the equality than the hierarchy; and, as the size of the society increases, the probability that it will be near the hierarchy becomes vanishingly small. If the dominance probability is a weighted sum of several independent components, which make up the ability vector, then the society is less likely to be close to the hierarchy as the number of these components increases. The hierarchy is the prevalent structure only if unreasonably small differences in ability are decisive for dominance. From this it appears that the social factors, or psychological factors such as the previous history of dominance, which are not included in the present treatment, may be of great importance in explaining the observed prevalence of structures very close to the hierarchy in flocks of domestic hens.
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