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Santos, L. R., Pearson, H. M., Spaepen, G. M., Tsao, F., & Hauser, M. D. (2006). Probing the limits of tool competence: experiments with two non-tool-using species (Cercopithecus aethiops and Saguinus oedipus). Anim. Cogn., 9(2), 94–109.
Abstract: Non-human animals vary in their ability to make and use tools. The goal of the present study was to further explore what, if anything, differs between tool-users and non-tool-users, and whether these differences lie in the conceptual or motor domain. We tested two species that typically do not use tools-cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)-on problems that mirrored those designed for prolific tool users such as chimpanzees. We trained subjects on a task in which they could choose one of two canes to obtain an out-of-reach food reward. After training, subjects received several variations on the original task, each designed to examine a specific conceptual aspect of the pulling problem previously studied in other tool-using species. Both species recognized that effective pulling tools must be made of rigid materials. Subsequent conditions revealed significant species differences, with vervets outperforming tamarins across many conditions. Vervets, but not tamarins, had some recognition of the relationship between a tool's orientation and the position of the food reward, the relationship between a tool's trajectory and the substance that it moves on, and that tools must be connected in order to work properly. These results provide further evidence that tool-use may derive from domain-general, rather than domain-specific cognitive capacities that evolved for tool use per se.
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Bergmann, H. H., Klaus, S., Muller, F., & Wiesner, J. (1975). [Individuality and type specificity in the songs of a population of hazel grouse (Bonasa bonasia bonasia L., Tetraoninae, Phasianidae)]. Behaviour, 55(1-2), 94–114.
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Jørgensen, G. H. M., Borsheim, L., Mejdell, C. M., Søndergaard, E., & Bøe, K. E. (2009). Grouping horses according to gender--Effects on aggression, spacing and injuries. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 120(1-2), 94–99.
Abstract: Many horse owners tend to group horses according to gender, in an attempt to reduce aggressive interactions and the risk of injuries. The aim of our experiment was to test the effects of such gender separation on injuries, social interactions and individual distance in domestic horses. A total of 66 horses were recruited from 4 different farms in Norway and Denmark and divided into six batches. Within each batch, horses were allotted into one mare group, one gelding group and one mixed gender group, with most groups consisting of three or four animals. After 4-6 weeks of acclimatisation, a trained observer recorded all social interactions using direct, continuous observation 1 h in the morning and 1 h in the afternoon for three consecutive days. Recordings of the nearest neighbour of each horse were performed using instantaneous sampling every 10 min. The horses were inspected for injuries before grouping, day 1 after grouping and after 4-6 weeks. No significant effect of gender composition was found on social interactions (P > 0.05), spacing (P > 0.07) or injuries (P > 0.23). Eighty percent of all aggressive interactions recorded were threats, not involving physical contact. Horses with the smallest space allowance showed the highest mean number of aggressive interactions (28.6 ± 6.1 interactions per 6 h) compared to the mean of all the other batches (8.3 ± 1.0 interactions per 6 h). Very few injuries were found and most were superficial. In conclusion, gender composition does not seem to have any effect on aggression level, spacing or injuries. However, the early social experience of horses, management of feeding and space allowance probably represents more important factors for successful group housing of domestic horses.
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Dochtermann, N. A., & Jenkins, S. H. (2011). Multivariate Methods and Small Sample Sizes. Ethology, 117(2), 95–101.
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Arakawa, H., Arakawa, K., Blanchard, D. C., & Blanchard, R. J. (2008). A new test paradigm for social recognition evidenced by urinary scent marking behavior in C57BL/6J mice. Behav. Brain. Res., 190(1), 97–104.
Abstract: Olfaction is a major sensory element in intraspecies recognition and communication in mice. The present study investigated scent marking behaviors of males of the highly inbred C57BL/6J (C57) strain in order to evaluate the ability of these behaviors to provide clear and consistent measures of social familiarity and response to social signals. C57 males engage in scent marking when placed in a chamber with a wire mesh partition separating them from a conspecific. Male mice (C57 or outbred CD-1 mice) showed rapid habituation of scent marking (decreased marking over trials) with repeated exposure at 24-h intervals, to a stimulus animal of the C57 or CD-1 strains, or to an empty chamber. Subsequent exposure to a genetically different novel mouse (CD-1 after CD-1 exposure, or CD-1 after C57 exposure) or to a novel context (different shaped chamber) produced recovery of marking, while responses to a novel but genetically identical mouse (C57 after C57 exposure) or to the empty chamber did not. This finding demonstrated that male mice differentiate familiar and novel conspecifics as expressed by habituation and recovery of scent marking, but neither C57 or CD-1 mice can differentiate new vs. familiar C57 males; likely due to similarities in their odor patterns. The data also indicate that scent marking can differentiate novel from familiar contexts.
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Leippert, D., Goymann, W., Hofer, H., Marimuthu, G., & Balasingh, J. (2000). Roost-mate communication in adult Indian false vampire bats (Megaderma lyra): an indication of individuality in temporal and spectral pattern. Anim. Cogn., 3(2), 99–106.
Abstract: The remarkable cognitive abilities of bats indicate that they may recognise particular conspecifics. Because of their highly developed auditory system, it is obvious that vocalisations of bats may give information about the individual emitting them. In a field study of the social behaviour in the Indian false vampire bat (Megaderma lyra), two different types of vocalisation were recorded and analysed. The bats emitted these vocalisations only while aggregating with conspecifics inside the day roost. The “landing strophe” consisted of a number of brief multiharmonic downward frequency-modulated (FMdown) sounds which levelled off as a constant frequency (CF), and the “clatter strophe” was composed of a number of multiharmonic FMdown sounds which became shallow at the end as a short CF. The sounds of the landing strophe and the ¶clatter strophe differed in repetition rate, duration, harmonic components and frequency. Time pattern and peak frequency of the two sound types differed highly significantly between single, unidentified bats. The sounds were inter-individually distinct when the three parameters were combined as an acoustical space. Therefore, these vocalisations might be used for individual recognition in adult bats.
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Williams, D. O., Boatwright, R. B., Rugh, K. S., Garner, H. E., & Griggs, D. M. J. (1991). Myocardial blood flow, metabolism, and function with repeated brief coronary occlusions in conscious ponies. Am J Physiol, 260(1 Pt 2), H100–9.
Abstract: Studies were performed in the conscious pony instrumented with a Doppler flow probe and hydraulic occluder on the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD), sonomicrometry crystals and intraventricular micromanometer in the left ventricle, and catheters in the left atrium and anterior interventricular vein. Two-minute LAD occlusions were performed every 30 min continuously or during working hours. Data on release of catabolites (potassium, hydrogen ions, and lactate) and norepinephrine from the initially dysfunctional region were obtained periodically during a regimen of 445 +/- 56 occlusions in six animals. Regional myocardial blood flow was measured (microsphere method) before and after an occlusion regimen in four animals. Marked release of catabolites and norepinephrine from the initially dysfunctional region was noted in association with early occlusions when myocardial segment function was severely reduced. With further occlusions, release of these substances decreased while segment function improved. Blood flow was markedly decreased in the initially dysfunctional region during an early occlusion but was at the control level during a later occlusion. Although the metabolic findings are consistent with protection due to “ischemic preconditioning” and no increase in collateral perfusion, the inverse relationship noted between catabolite release and segment function is best explained by flow-dependent mechanisms. These results, together with the myocardial blood flow data, serve to validate a previous assumption that protection against regional myocardial dysfunction under these conditions is due to increased collateral perfusion.
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Clement, T. S., Feltus, J. R., Kaiser, D. H., & Zentall, T. R. (2000). “Work ethic” in pigeons: reward value is directly related to the effort or time required to obtain the reward. Psychon Bull Rev, 7(1), 100–106.
Abstract: Stimuli associated with less effort or with shorter delays to reinforcement are generally preferred over those associated with greater effort or longer delays to reinforcement. However, the opposite appears to be true of stimuli that follow greater effort or longer delays. In training, a simple simultaneous discrimination followed a single peck to an initial stimulus (S+FR1 S-FR1) and a different simple simultaneous discrimination followed 20 pecks to the initial stimulus (S+FR20 S-FR20). On test trials, pigeons preferred S+FR20 over S+FR1 and S-FR20 over S-FR1. These data support the view that the state of the animal immediately prior to presentation of the discrimination affects the value of the reinforcement that follows it. This contrast effect is analogous to effects that when they occur in humans have been attributed to more complex cognitive and social factors.
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Jørgensen, G. H. M., Liestøl, S. H. - O., & Bøe, K. E. (2011). Effects of enrichment items on activity and social interactions in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 129(2-4), 100–110.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the use of items intended to provide enrichment during turnout, both for individual and group kept horses in an attempt to reduce the amount of passive behaviours. The study was divided into two parts, where study 1 involved eight horses rotated through eight individual paddocks, each containing one of seven enrichment items and one paddock being kept without item, functioning as a control. The horses' item-directed behaviours; passive behaviours or other non-item related activities were scored using instantaneous sampling, every minute for 1 h at the beginning and the end of the turnout period. Study 2 involved six horse groups (3-6 horses) and the same scoring methods and ethogram as in study 1. The four items that the horses interacted the most with during study 1 (straw STRA, ball filled with concentrates CBALL, branches BRAN and scratching pole POLE) are investigated in study 2. In addition, the amount of social interactions was recorded. Both horses kept individually (P < 0.05) and in groups (P < 0.0001) performed significantly more item-directed behaviours towards edible items like STRA and CBALL than other objects. There was, however, no overall relation between the numbers of item-directed behaviours and the number of passive behaviours observed, indicating that the enrichment items did not alone reduce the amount of passive behaviours during turnout periods. Such a reduction was, however, only apparent when horses spent more time eating green leaves growing on the paddock surface (R = -0.97 study 1, R = -0.67 study 2, P < 0.0001). Access to STRA in group kept horses also seemed to reduce the amount of agonistic behaviours (P < 0.0001). In conclusion, if grass is not available in paddocks, the provision of roughage reduces the amount of passive behaviours in singly kept horses and it also reduces the risk of agonistic interactions between horses kept in group.
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Jørgensen, G. H. M., Liestøl, S. H. - O., & Bøe, K. E. (2011). Effects of enrichment items on activity and social interactions in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 129(2), 100–110.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the use of items intended to provide enrichment during turnout, both for individual and group kept horses in an attempt to reduce the amount of passive behaviours. The study was divided into two parts, where study 1 involved eight horses rotated through eight individual paddocks, each containing one of seven enrichment items and one paddock being kept without item, functioning as a control. The horses' item-directed behaviours; passive behaviours or other non-item related activities were scored using instantaneous sampling, every minute for 1h at the beginning and the end of the turnout period. Study 2 involved six horse groups (3-6 horses) and the same scoring methods and ethogram as in study 1. The four items that the horses interacted the most with during study 1 (straw STRA, ball filled with concentrates CBALL, branches BRAN and scratching pole POLE) are investigated in study 2. In addition, the amount of social interactions was recorded. Both horses kept individually (P<0.05) and in groups (P<0.0001) performed significantly more item-directed behaviours towards edible items like STRA and CBALL than other objects. There was, however, no overall relation between the numbers of item-directed behaviours and the number of passive behaviours observed, indicating that the enrichment items did not alone reduce the amount of passive behaviours during turnout periods. Such a reduction was, however, only apparent when horses spent more time eating green leaves growing on the paddock surface (R=-0.97 study 1, R=-0.67 study 2, P<0.0001). Access to STRA in group kept horses also seemed to reduce the amount of agonistic behaviours (P<0.0001). In conclusion, if grass is not available in paddocks, the provision of roughage reduces the amount of passive behaviours in singly kept horses and it also reduces the risk of agonistic interactions between horses kept in group.
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