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Fuller, T. K., & Sampson, B. A. (1988). Evaluation of a simulated howling survey for wolves. J Widl Manag, 52.
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Houpt, K. A., & Fraser, A. F. (1988). Przewalski horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 21(1-2), 1–3.
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Penzhorn Bl,. (1988). Equus zebra. Mammalian Species, 314, 1–7.
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Galdikas BMF. (1988). Orangutan diet, range, and activity at Tanjung Puting, Central Borneo. Int. J. Primatol., 9, 1.
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Byrne, R., & Whiten, A. (1988). The machiavellian intelligence hypothesis:Editorial. In Machiavellian Intelligence (pp. 1–9). Oxford: Oxford Univ Press.
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Boyd, L. E., Carbonaro, D. A., & Houpt, K. A. (1988). The 24-hour time budget of Przewalski horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 21(1-2), 5–17.
Abstract: A herd of 8 Przewalski horses were observed on pasture in summer. Fifteen-minute focal animal samples were used to determine the time budget of the horses during the periods 00.00-04.00, 04.00-08.00, 08.00-12.00, 12.00-16.00, 16.00-20.00 and 20.00-24.00 h EDT. The behavioral states recorded were feeding (grazing and eating grain), nursing, drinking, standing, stand-resting, self-grooming, mutual grooming, locomoting, playing, and lying laterally and sternally. The average number of behavioral states occurring per hour, and the defecation, urination, aggression and vocalization rates were also determined. Overall, the horses spent 46.4 +/- 5.9% of their time feeding, 1.3 +/- 0.1% nursing, 0.5 +/- 0.1% drinking, 20.6 +/- 5.4% standing, 15.7 +/- 3.2% stand-resting, 1.7 +/- 0.2% self-grooming, 2.2 +/- 0.7% mutual grooming, 7.4 +/- 1.0% locomoting, 1.2 +/- 0.3% playing, 1.2 +/- 0.5% lying laterally and 4.1 +/- 3.0% lying sternally. The horses averaged 45.2 +/- 5.8 behavioral states per hour, and 0.2 +/- 0.0 defecations, 0.3 +/- 0.0 urinations, 1.5 +/- 0.3 aggressions and 0.7 +/- 0.1 vocalizations per hour. The horses spent the greatest amount of time foraging between 20.00 and 04.00 h, when the temperatures were lower. They spent 68.2 +/- 2.2% of their time between 20.00 and 24.00 h feeding, but only 31.2 +/- 2.1% of their time feeding between 08.00 and 12.00 h. Recumbent rest was most common between 00.00 and 04.00 h. As temperatures rose during the daylight hours, the horses spent more time drinking and standing, rather than grazing. Stand-resting was the most common form of rest during the day. The horses exhibited the greatest number of activities per hour from 08.00 to 20.00 h. While standing in close proximity to one another during these hours, the horses exhibited the highest number of aggressions per hour (1.9-2.4).
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NOVELLIE PA et al,. (1988). Factors affecting the seasonal movements of Cape mountain zebras in the Mountain Zebra National Park. S Afr J Zool, 23, 13–19.
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Carroll, C. L., & Huntington, P. J. (1988). Body condition scoring and weight estimation of horses. Equine Vet J, 20(1), 41–45.
Abstract: Three hundred and seventy two horses of varying breeds, height and fatness were weighed and measured for height at the withers. They were assessed for condition score by adaptation of a previously published method. The heart girth and length of 281 of the horses were also measured. Weight of horses was highly correlated (P less than 0.001) with height (r2 = 0.62), condition score (r2 = 0.22) and girth2 x length (r2 = 0.90). Nomograms were constructed to predict weight from height and condition score, and girth and length measurements. Weight can also be accurately estimated from the formula: (formula, see text) The average value of 'Y' in this experiment was 11900 and this estimated weight with more accuracy than some previously published values of 'Y'. Racing Thoroughbred horses were found to be significantly lighter than non-racing Thoroughbreds of the same height and condition score. The method of assessment of condition score was shown to be repeatable between different operators with varying degrees of experience.
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Boyd, L. E. (1988). Ontogeny of behavior in Przewalski horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 21(1-2), 41–69.
Abstract: Twelve colts and 12 fillies were observed during their first 2 years of life. Data on the foal's nearest neighbor, distance to dam and stallion, and time budget were compiled by age. The birth of one foal was witnessed. During their first month of life, Przewalski foals were dependent on the dam. She provided most of their nourishment and foals spent 54% of their time within 1 m of her. The biggest change in behavior of foals occurred between Months 1 and 2. The amount of time spent resting and nursing declined, while the amount of time spent foraging increased sharply. Foals began to leave their mothers and interact with peers by 3 weeks of age, and at 2 months they were interacting with older herd members. By 5 months of age, the amount of time spent in most behaviors was identical to that of adults, except that vocalization rates and involvement in aggression were lower than for adults. Juveniles spent less time stand-resting than adults throughout their first year, but more time in recumbent rest. Foals spent far less time with their sire than with their dam. However, an orphaned foal spent more time with his sire than did mothered foals, indicating that the sire assumed part of the role of the missing dam.
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Kozarovitskii, L. B. (1988). [Further comment on the distinction between humans and animals]. Nauchnye Doki Vyss Shkoly Biol Nauki, (3), 42–45.
Abstract: The problem of mind is considered in the aspect of natural scientific and philosophical problem of distinction between human and animal. The widespread confusion of the terms “rudiments”, “elements” of specifically human properties in animals and “biological prerequisites” of these properties are critically analysed. The idea is formulated according to which only in the process of anthropogenesis the rudiments of new social property--mind, conscience--could appear in the developing human beings.
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