Abstract: In dieser Untersuchung sollte überprüft werden, ob die für die Stressmessung beim Menschen angewandte „Chronopsychobiologische Regulationsdiagnostik“ (CRD) mithilfe des smardwatch®-Messsystems auch beim Pferd psychische Belastungssituationen aussagekräftig widerspiegelt. Menschen können anhand variierender physiologischer und ethologischer Reaktionen auf Stressoren aus der Umwelt in Stresstypen eingeteilt werden. Auch Pferde reagieren in identischen Situationen ganz unterschiedlich. Es stellte sich daher die Frage, ob Pferde ebenfalls bestimmten Stresstypen zugeordnet werden können.
Mit 26 dreijährigen Hengsten des Landgestüts Celle wurde ein Verhaltenstest durchgeführt. Auf der Grundlage wissenschaftlich dokumentierter und modifizierter Testsituationen (Open-Field-Test, Novel-Object-Test, Startling-Test Objekt/Geräusch, Mensch-Pferd-Interaktion, Ressourcenkontrolle) wurde das Erkundungs- und Fluchtverhalten untersucht (Goslar 2011). Während dieser Belastungssituationen wurden mit dem smardwatch®-Messgerät die elektrophysiologischen Parameter Hautwiderstand, Hautpotential und Muskelaktivität erfasst. Durch eine Zeitreihenmessung dieser physiologischen Parameter konnten die Reaktionen des übergeordneten Reglers (vegetatives Nervensystem) dargestellt werden. Der Hautwiderstand spiegelt die vegetativ-emotionalen Reaktionen wider, das Hautpotential die vegetativ-nervalen und somit laut Balzer (2009) die kognitiven Verarbeitungsweisen, und durch das Elektromyogramm werden die typischen muskulär-motorischen Reaktionen aufgezeichnet. Die vorliegenden Datenzeitreihen wurden mit Hilfe einer biorhythmometrischen Zeitreihenanalyse nach Balzer und Hecht (Hecht 2001, Balzer 2009) ausgewertet. Als Ergebnis wurden chronobiologische Regulationszustände definiert, die dann gemäß dem „Periodischen System der Regulationszustände“ (PSR) (Balzer 2000) eine Beurteilung der psychischen Belastungssituation erlauben. Zur Bestimmung von Stresstypen wurde die Untersuchung nach dem Reiz-Reaktions-Prinzip in drei Phasen unterteilt: Ruhephase, Stressreizphase und Stressverarbeitungsphase. Der Verhaltenstest wurde nach einer Woche zur gleichen Tageszeit mit jedem Hengst einmal wiederholt. Als physiologische Vergleichsparameter wurden vor, während und nach der Belastung insgesamt zehn Speichelproben zur Cortisolbestimmung entnommen.
Die smardwatch®-Messtechnik ist prinzipiell geeignet die physiologischen Parameter Hautwiderstand, Hautpotential und Muskelaktivität auf der Haut des Pferdes aufzunehmen. Durch die biorhythmometrische Zeitreihenanalyse konnten chronobiologische Regulationszustände definiert werden.
Der Verhaltenstest führte bei allen Pferden zu einem signifikanten Anstieg der Cortisolwerte. Ein ebenfalls statistisch gesicherter Unterschied der aktivierten Cortisolwerte zwischen der ersten und zweiten Testwoche zeigt eine geringere Stressreaktion und weist auf einen Lerneffekt der Pferde hin:
Entsprechend der relativen Instabilitäten der Regulation der Körperfunktionen in Messphase 2 und 3 konnten die Pferde in vier Stressregulationstypen (nach Balzer u. Hecht 1996) eingeteilt werden: Stressbeherrscher, -bewältiger und kompensierer sowie Stressnichtbewältiger.
Anhand der Aktivierung von Sympathikus und Parasympathikus konnten zusätzlich vier verschiedene Vegetative Stresstypen unterschieden werden: Sympathikotoniker, Amphotoniker, Indifferenter Typ und Vagotoniker.
Die Cortisolreaktion der Hengste war individuell sehr unterschiedlich. Um die maximalen Anstiege vergleichen zu können, wurde der Trend der jeweiligen Cortisolverlaufskurve bestimmt. Anhand der Trend-korrigierten Cortisolkurven konnten einerseits die relativen Maxima der Cortisolreaktion besser verglichen werden, anderseits konnten die Pferde mittels des unterschiedlichen Trendes in drei Cortisolverlaufsgruppen eingeteilt werden: Tendenz fallend, gleichbleibend oder steigend.
Ein statistischer Nachweis für eine Abhängigkeit zwischen den verschiedenen Stresstypenklassifizierungen konnte anhand der geringen Stichprobenzahl nicht erbracht werden. Jedoch lassen sich Pferde, wie Menschen, unterschiedlichen Stresstypen zuordnen. Schwierig bleibt aber die objektive Beurteilung von Befindlichkeiten, da Empfindungen und Gefühle nur subjektiv wahrnehmbare Qualitäten sind, die von einer Reihe innerer und äußerer Faktoren abhängen. Die Verhaltenszuordnung emotionaler Zustände durch die „Chronopsychobiologische Regulationsdiagnostik“ (CRD) kann nicht ohne die Basis weiterer vergleichender Studien vom Mensch auf das Pferd übertragen werden.
Die CRD-Methode könnte allerdings einen interdisziplinären Ansatz ermöglichen und zukünftig neben den klassischen deskriptiven Verhaltensbeobachtungen bei der Beurteilung von Haltungs- und Umgangssituationen von Tieren wertvolle Aufschlüsse über die Fähigkeit zur Stressbewältigung und deren Konsequenzen für das Wohlbefinden der Tiere geben.
In this study we examined, whether the “Chronopsychobiological regulation diagnosis” (CRD) with the smardwatch®-system which is used to assess specific strain in humans, is also able to reflect convincingly specific strain in horses. Humans can be categorized into so-called stress types, because they react differently in physiology and behaviour to environmental stimuli. Concerning horses, it is also known that individuals react differently in identical situations. The question to be answered is, if it is possible to categorize horses into certain stress types as well.
We carried out a behavioural test with 26 three-year-old stallions of the State Stud of Celle, involving different test situations. On the basis of test situations, well known in scientific literature including slight modifications (open-field-test, novel-object-test, startling-test object/sound, human-horse-interaction, resource control) the explorative and flight behaviour of horses were examined (Goslar 2011). During these situations of strain the system smardwatch® measured the electro-physiological parameters skin resistance, skin potential and muscle activity. With time series analyses of these physiological parameters the reactions of the vegetative nervous system as superior control could be shown. The skin resistance reflects the vegetative-emotional, the skin potential the vegetative-nervous hence according to Balzer (2009) cognitive reactions and the electromyogram shows the motorized reactions. The time series of measured data was analyzed using the biorhythmometrical time series analysis of Balzer and Hecht (Hecht 2001, Balzer 2009). As a result of this, typical states of chronobiological regulation were defined. With the help of the “periodic system of regulatory states” (PSR) (Balzer 2000) these led to a classification of mental stress situations. To categorize horses into stress types the study was devided into three phases according to the stimulus-response principle: phase 1 (relaxing), phase 2 (situation of strain) and phase 3 (stimulus processing phase). The behavioural test was repeated once with each stallion exactly one week later. In addition ten samples of saliva were taken before, during and after the situations of strain from which we determined the cortisol concentration to be compared with the chronopsychobiological parameters.
The smardwatch®-measurement technology is fundamentally suitable to measure the physiological parameters skin resistance, skin potential and electrical muscle activity of horses. Using the biorhythmometrical time series analysis, chronobiological regulatory states could be defined for horses as well.
For each horse the cortisol value increased significantly during the behavioural test. A remarkable difference of the cortisol values assessed in the first and second test, indicates a learning effect: The behavioural test led to a significantly lower stress reaction in the second week.
Depending on the proportions of unstable regulation processes during and after the situations of strain, four types of regulation (Balzer u. Hecht 1996) can be defined: the Control-, Cope-, Compensate- and Non-cope-type.
Using the activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system four vegetative stress types could be determined: Sympathicotonic, Amphotonic, Indifferent Type and Vagotonic.
The stress reaction of the stallions in terms of cortisol level was quite individual. To compare the maximum increase the trend of each cortisol trajectory was analyzed. On the one hand correcting for the trend allowed a comparison of relative maxima, on the other hand the horses could be categorized into groups, according to the evolution of their cortisol level (cortisol progression groups): Tendency falling, stable or rising.
The number of samples was not considered to be sufficient in order to statistically assess some dependence among the different classifications of stress types. But to our point of view horses can be assigned to different stress types like humans. But it’s still difficult to judge the emotions of animals, because emotions are subjectively perceptible qualities dependent on many internal and external factors. The assignment of emotional behaviour to the chronopsychobiological regulation diagnosis (CRD) can’t be transferred from human to horse without further studies.
However, the CRD method could enable an interdisciplinary approach. Besides classic descriptive observations of behavior, the CRD could give further information about the coping capacity and the consequences for animal welfare in the assessment of stressful situations.

Abstract: We developed a biorhythmical method to assess behaviour patterns and to evaluate living conditions of animals. All kinds of continuous and equidistant long-term recordings of behaviour are suitable for this method. As simple behavioural parameters, such as motor activity, can be conveniently recorded by telemetry from wild animals now, it is possible to investigate stressors by analysing its biorhythmic structure. It is the purpose of this report to describe the basic idea, and the procedure, and to give some examples of application measured on Przewalski horses in an Semireserve.

Abstract: Investigations were conducted on four horses from a group of 12 Przewalski mares raised in different zoos and kept in a 44-ha enclosure under semi-natural conditions. Activity and feeding were continuously measured every second and were saved every 15 min by the storage-telemetry system ETHOSYS, from June 1995 to July 1996. Body mass of the horses was regularly recorded. Daily and monthly mean values, power spectra and DFC (as a measure for stability of rhythms synchronised with circadiurnal period) for activity and feeding were calculated. The general pattern of activity and feeding over the year was closely related to sunrise and sunset. Feeding accounted for 40% of total activity in summer and 62% in spring (all-year average being 52%). The level of activity was lowest in winter; whereas feeding was lowest in summer. The time budget for feeding reflected both feeding conditions and the annual pattern of body condition. Greatest activity occurred during daylight hours. Only on hot summer days, activity at night was higher than during daylight hours. Spectral analysis of activity and feeding in Przewalski horse showed a time pattern which was characterised by 24-h rhythmicity, but also by ultradian components with period lengths between 4.8 and 12 h, i.e., an activity pattern of up to five strong bouts per day. Annual variation in the pattern of power spectra was not high during the year. Results are discussed in connection with horse feeding strategy. Analysing the time structure of long-term and continuously measured activity and feeding could be a useful method to follow the general living conditions, especially the nutritional situation and to detect stressful conditions.

Abstract: This experiment investigated the effects of positive and negative tactile handling on the stress physiology and behaviour of dairy heifers. Forty-eight 5-14-month-old nonlactating Holstein-Friesian heifers were allocated to one of two handling treatments, either positive or negative tactile handling, over four time replicates. Handling was imposed twice daily, 2-5 min per session and involved moving animals individually along a 64 m outdoor route. The negatively handled heifers took longer to approach within 1 and 2 m of a stimulus person in a standard test, than their positively handled counterparts (P<0.001) and had a greater flight distance to an approaching stimulus (P<0.001). The time taken by the heifers to approach within 1 and 2 m of a familiar person was similar to that taken to approach within 1 and 2 m of an unfamiliar person in the standard test (P<0.05). There was a tendency for heifers to have a greater flight distance from the approaching unfamiliar person than from the approaching familiar person (P=0.06). The negatively handled heifers had greater (P<0.05) increases in total cortisol concentrations 5, 10 and 15 min after exposure to a human and had higher (P<0.05) free cortisol concentrations in the afternoon than the positively handled heifers. It is concluded that the nature of the human contact affects the subsequent behavioural response of heifers to humans. This behavioural response may extend to other humans through the process of stimulus generalisation, although there was some evidence of moderate discrimination. Negative handling results in an acute stress response in the presence of humans and also leads to a chronic stress response. Further research into the effect of these stress responses on milk production and welfare in fearful cows in a commercial situation is suggested.

Abstract: The millennia-old practices of horse training markedly predate and thus were isolated from the mid-twentieth century revelation of animal learning processes. From this standpoint, the progress made in the application and understanding of learning theory in horse training is reviewed including a discussion of how learning processes are employed or otherwise under-utilised in training. This review describes the process of habituation and the most commonly applied desensitisation techniques (systematic desensitisation, counter-conditioning, overshadowing, response prevention) and propose two additional techniques (approach conditioning and stimulus blending). The salience of different types of cues, the interaction of operant and classical conditioning and the impact of stress are also discussed. This paper also exposes the inflexibility and occasional inadequacy of the terminology of learning theory when translated from the research laboratory situation to the practical setting in horse training. While learning theory provides a rich toolbox for riders and trainers, the training process is subject to the simultaneous use of multiple learning processes. In addition, learning/behavioural outcomes and trained responses are not just the result of simple stimulus-response based interactions but are further shaped by arousal, affective and attachment states. More research is needed in these areas. For the field of equitation science to progress and to improve clarity and use of learning processes, changes in nomenclature are required. In particular, the use of the terms 'positive' and 'negative' as descriptive labels in both reinforcement and punishment modalities are unacceptably misleading for everyday use. These labels inhibit the understanding and recognition of the learning processes that these terms supposedly represent, yet the learning processes they describe are vital for horse riders, handlers and trainers to understand. We therefore propose that these labels should be re-labelled more appropriately as 'addition' or 'subtraction' reinforcement/punishment. This would enlighten trainers on the correct application of learning theory, and safety and welfare benefits for people and horses would follow. Finally it is also proposed that the term 'conflict theory' be taken up in equitation science to facilitate diagnosis of training-related behaviour disorders and thus enable the emergence of improved training practices. The optimal use of learning theory should be established as a fundamental principle in equestrian education.