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Mills, D. S., & Nankervis, K. J. (1999).
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Mills, D. S., & McDonnell, S. M. (Eds.). (2005). The Domestic Horse. Camebridge: Cambridge University Press.
Abstract: Humans have had a profound influence on the horse since its domestication in the late Neolithic period. Used for transport, labour, food and recreation, horses have become important in many facets of our society. Daniel Mills and Sue McDonnell have produced an exceptional account of our current knowledge of the development and management of the behaviour of the horse, from its wild roots. The Domestic Horse brings together, for the first time, an unrivalled collection of international scientific authors to write on the latest findings concerning the behaviour and welfare of this beautiful animal. Illustrated throughout, The Domestic Horse will appeal to animal scientists, those working with horses in a professional capacity and the owner/enthusiast. It also provides sound complementary reading for animal/equine science courses and veterinary students.
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Birke, L., Hockenhull, J., Creighton, E., Pinno, L., Mee, J., & Mills, D. (). Horses' responses to variation in human approach. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., In Press, Corrected Proof.
Abstract: The behaviour of humans around horses is thought to have a substantial impact on how people are perceived in subsequent interactions and many horse trainers give detailed advice on how handlers should behave when initially approaching a loose horse. Here we report on three studies designed to explore the effect of different human approach styles on the behaviour of naïve and experienced horses. In the first study, the change in flight distance (distance at which horses started to avoid an approaching human) of twelve semi-feral Dartmoor ponies, undergoing training to allow handling, was assessed. Over the 10 handling sessions median flight distance decreased significantly (p < 0.001) from 2.38 m to 0.00 m and there was a significant positive shift in the ponies' behaviour following the appearance of the researcher (p = 0.002). In a second study the effect of a direct (vigorous, swinging a lead rope and with eye contact) versus indirect (relaxed, no rope swinging and without eye contact) approach style was assessed on six adult experienced riding horses. The mean flight distance during a direct approach style (6.87 m) was significantly greater than that which occurred during an indirect approach style (2.32 m). Direction of approach was not found to significantly affect flight distance. In a third study, the effect of the rope was removed and a similar method to the second study applied to a group of naïve, feral ponies. The effect of different components of approach style, speed of approach, handler body posture and direction of gaze, which might contribute to observed differences in behavioural responses, were then examined systematically in this population. This revealed no significant difference in mean flight distance between the two approach styles (2.28 m indirect versus 2.37 m direct approach), but ponies were significantly more likely to move off in trot (p = 0.025) and to travel further (p = 0.001) when a direct approach was used. Speed of approach was the most salient factor, with a fast approach increasing both the tendency to move off in trot (p < 0.001) and distance travelled (p < 0.001). Body posture (relaxed or tense) had no effect, while flight distance was significantly greater when the person was looking away (p = 0.045). These results suggest horses may have an important egocentric spatial barrier, which perhaps relates to personal space and triggering of the flight response. Contrary to popular belief, body posture did not appear to be very important in the contexts examined unless accompanied by extraneous aids, while the speed of approach is particularly significant. These results are of important practical relevance in reducing the risk of injury, and the effective management of horses with minimal stress.
Keywords: Horse; Flight response; Human approach; Body posture; Approach speed; Natural horsemanship
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McVey, A., Wilkinson, A., & Mills, D. S. (2018). Social learning in horses: the effect of using a group leader demonstrator on the performance of familiar conspecifics in a detour task. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, .
Abstract: Learning through the observation of others allows the transfer of information without the costs incurred during individual trial and error learning. Horses (Equus caballus) are a highly social species, which might be expected to be capable of learning from others, but experimental findings are inconsistent, and potentially confounded by social facilitation effects not related directly to the learning of the task. We refined the methods used in previous equine social learning studies, to examine and distinguish specific social influences on learning of a task: we used predefined group leaders rather than agonistically dominant individuals to demonstrate a detour task to familiar conspecific observers; in addition we had two control groups: a non-observer (true control) and a group with the demonstrator simply present at the goal (social facilitation control). 44 socially kept horses were allocated to one of the three test conditions and took part in five trials each. Success rate, latency and detour direction were recorded. There was no significant difference between the three groups in the likelihood of them succeeding in the task nor latency to succeed; however there was a significant difference in the route chosen by the groups, with the true control choosing the side with the entrance gate significantly more than either the observer group or social facilitation group. Both of the latter two groups chose to go in the same direction relative to themselves, regardless of which side the gate was. Seven out of nine horses in the observer group chose the same direction as their demonstrator every time. Our results show a significant role of social facilitation on detour behaviour and highlight the importance of including adequate controls for simpler cognitive influences on behaviour before claims can be made about the specific learning of motor actions or goal directed behaviour. Social cues may be important to horses if the task is sufficiently challenging and motivationally important, so future work should consider more demanding, but ecologically relevant situations, in order to maximise the potential revelation of social learning effects which do not depend on simple local or stimulus enhancement effects.
Keywords: Equine; Imitation; Leader; Social facilitation; Social learning
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Mills, D. S. (1998). Personality and individual differences in the horse, their significance, use and measurement. Equine Vet J Suppl, (27), 10–13.
Abstract: The biological diversity of a species gives rise to individual differences in behavioural tendency. Traditionally, this variation has been considered to be of little scientific importance or value, but the description and quantification of the fundamental basis of this variability is relevant to many aspects of equine science. The reliable identification of these features may allow the development of more accurate diagnostic and prognostic indicators for a range of clinical diseases. Biologically based traits also provide a more rational basis for selective management and breeding programmes in which specific behavioural tendencies are sought. Individual differences in behaviour also reflect the range of subjective feelings experienced by animals and therefore need to be understood by those concerned with animal welfare. Psychometric techniques concerned with the assessment of personality may provide a suitable basis for scientific study in this field. Potentially methodologies include: behavioural tests, objective behaviour measures or the quantification of reports from those familiar with the subjects. The assessment of the validity and reliability of the variables measured in these tests is an integral part of their development. Interobserver correlation in an experiment based on the subjective rating of 20 horses with respect to 14 familiar terms used to describe horse personality was generally low. This suggests that, with the exception of the terms 'flighty' and 'sharp', the empirical terminology commonly used to describe horse personality is unreliable.
Keywords: Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Horses/*psychology; Personality
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Mills, D. S., & Taylor, K. (2003). Field study of the efficacy of three types of nose net for the treatment of headshaking in horses. Vet. Rec., 152(2), 41–44.
Abstract: Thirty-six owners of seasonally headshaking horses took part in a trial to compare the effectiveness of three types of nose net, a traditional cylindrical net (full net) and two forms of larger mesh nets which cover only the nostrils and dorsorostral muzzle (half nets). Baseline data relating to the overall severity of the problem and 18 specific behaviours describing the nature of the problem were recorded on a check sheet by the owners. A within-subjects repeated measures design experiment, with each net used for a week before reassessment, was then used to assess the effect of the nets on the headshaking problem. Approximately 75 per cent of owners reported some overall improvement with each net; around 60 per cent recorded a 50 per cent or greater improvement and 30 per cent a 70 per cent or greater improvement. The nets significantly reduced the overall headshaking score and the following specific behaviours: up-and-down headshaking, nose flipping, acting as if a bee had flown up the nose, shaking at exercise, shaking when excited, shaking in bright sunlight or in windy conditions (P < 0.0001), striking at the face, shaking at night, rubbing the nose when moving, rubbing the nose on objects, sneezing, shaking in the rain and shaking indoors (P < 0.05). There was no evidence of a significant effect on side-to-side headshaking, shaking at rest or rubbing the nose when stationary, but the effect on snorting was uncertain. There were few significant differences between the nets, but the half nets were reported to be significantly better at controlling 'bee up the nose' behaviour. Horses more than 10 years old were reportedly less likely to show a 50 per cent or greater improvement in 'nose flipping' and 'headshaking at exercise.
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Mills, D. S. (1998). Applying learning theory to the management of the horse: the difference between getting it right and getting it wrong. Equine Vet J Suppl, (27), 44–48.
Abstract: Horses constantly modify their behaviour as a result of experience. This involves the creation of an association between events or stimuli. The influence of people on the modification and generation of certain behaviour patterns extends beyond the intentional training of the horse. The impact of any action depends on how it is perceived by the horse, rather than the motive of the handler. Negative and positive reinforcement increase the probability of specific behaviours recurring i.e. strengthen the association between events, whereas punishment reduces the probable recurrence of a behaviour without providing specific information about the desired alternative. In this paper the term 'punishers' is used to refer to the physical aids, such as a whip or crop, which may be used to bring about the process of punishment. However, if their application ceases when a specific behaviour occurs they may negatively reinforce that action. Intended 'punishers' may also be rewarding (e.g. for attention seeking behaviour). Therefore, contingency factors (which define the relationship between stimuli, such as the level of reinforcement), contiguity factors (which describe the proximity of events in space or time) and choice of reinforcing stimuli are critical in determining the rate of learning. The many problems associated with the application of punishment in practice lead to confusion by both horse and handler and, possibly, abuse of the former. Most behaviour problems relate to handling and management of the horse and can be avoided or treated with a proper analysis of the factors influencing the behaviour.
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Cooper, J. J., McDonald, L., & Mills, D. S. (2000). The effect of increasing visual horizons on stereotypic weaving: implications for the social housing of stabled horses. Appl Anim Behav Sci, 69(1), 67–83.
Abstract: Stabled horses commonly perform stereotypic patterns of weaving, where the horse shifts its weight from side to side often swinging its head. Ten warm-blood types, of which five were known to reliably weave, were housed in similar 12x12 ft wooden loose boxes in a single stable block surrounding a courtyard. Each horse was exposed to each of five stable designs. These were: the conventional front top-half of the door open only with a view of the stable courtyard (F); front half-door open and a similar half-door open at the back of the stable with a view to the surrounding fields (FB); back open only (B); front and one-side panel open with a view into the adjacent stable (FS); and front, back and both sides open (All4). During observation days, horses were brought in from the field at 0830 h, fed concentrate at 0930 h, fed haylage at 1005 h and turned out at 1600 h. Behaviour was recorded from 0900 to 1040 h, 1200 to 1300 h and 1500 to 1600 h. Weaving was most common prior to feeding in the morning and prior to putting out to pasture in the afternoon. There was a significant effect of stable design on weaving, with less weaving in the FS and All4 designs than the F treatment. There was also a significant effect of stable design on repetitive nodding, though in this case, FB, B, FS and All4 designs each reduced nodding compared with the F treatment. The effect of stable design can be explained in a number of ways. Firstly, it could be the novelty of the environmental change, though there was no evidence in this study of an increase in stereotypy with prolonged exposure to the new stable designs. Secondly, opening windows may increase opportunities for environmental interaction, and the expression of new activities may compete with stereotypic behaviour for the horse's time. Thirdly, the open windows may allow expression of specific activities such as environmental monitoring or social interaction that are denied by the conventional stable.
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Ramos, D., Reche-Junior, A., Fragoso, P. L., Palme, R., Yanasse, N. K., Gouvêa, V. R., et al. (2013). Are cats (Felis catus) from multi-cat households more stressed? Evidence from assessment of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite analysis. Physiol. Behav., 122, 72–75.
Abstract: Abstract Given the social and territorial features described in feral cats, it is commonly assumed that life in multi-cat households is stressful for domestic cats and suggested that cats kept as single pets are likely to have better welfare. On the other hand, it has been hypothesized that under high densities cats can organize themselves socially thus preventing stress when spatial dispersion is unavailable. This study was aimed at comparing the general arousal underpinning emotional distress in single housed cats and in cats from multi-cat households (2 and 3–4 cats) on the basis of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM) measured via enzyme immunoassay (EIA). GCM did not significantly vary as a function of living style (single, double or group-housing); highly stressed individuals were equally likely in the three groups. Young cats in multi-cat households had lower GCM, and overall cats that tolerate (as opposed to dislike) petting by the owners tended to have higher GCM levels. Other environmental aspects within cat houses (e.g. relationship with humans, resource availability) may play a more important role in day to day feline arousal levels than the number of cats per se.
Keywords: Feline; Housing; Non-invasive; Enzyme immunoassay; Cortisol
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Mills, D., & Clarke, A. (2002). Housing, Management and Welfare. In The Welfare of Horses (pp. 77–97).
Abstract: Horses tend to be housed in loose boxes, stalls, barns and shelters for ease of management, however these systems present several possible threats to equine health and welfare. These systems are reviewed together with the concerns they raise. A common system for the evaluation of the welfare of contained animals focuses on the provision of five freedoms. These are freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition, from discomfort, from pain, injury and disease, from fear and distress and to express most normal patterns of behaviour. This approach is used to assess the ways in which horse welfare may be compromised by certain housing practices and management regimes. Recommendations as to how these problems can be resolved and to promote good practice are provided.
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