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Morton, D. B. (2000). Self-consciousness and animal suffering. Biologist (London), 47(2), 77–80.
Abstract: Animals with relatively highly developed brains are likely to experience some degree of self-awareness and the ability to think. As well as being interesting in its own right, self-consciousness matters from an ethical point of view, since it can give rise to forms of suffering above and beyond the immediate physical sensations of pain or distress. This article surveys the evidence for animal self-consciousness and its implications for animal welfare.
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Murphy, J., & Arkins, S. (2007). Equine learning behaviour. Behav. Process., 76(1), 1–13.
Abstract: Scientists and equestrians continually seek to achieve a clearer understanding of equine learning behaviour and its implications for training. Behavioural and learning processes in the horse are likely to influence not only equine athletic success but also the usefulness of the horse as a domesticated species. However given the status and commercial importance of the animal, equine learning behaviour has received only limited investigation. Indeed most experimental studies on equine cognitive function to date have addressed behaviour, learning and conceptualisation processes at a moderately basic cognitive level compared to studies in other species. It is however, likely that the horses with the greatest ability to learn and form/understand concepts are those, which are better equipped to succeed in terms of the human-horse relationship and the contemporary training environment. Within equitation generally, interpretation of the behavioural processes and training of the desired responses in the horse are normally attempted using negative reinforcement strategies. On the other hand, experimental designs to actually induce and/or measure equine learning rely almost exclusively on primary positive reinforcement regimes. Employing two such different approaches may complicate interpretation and lead to difficulties in identifying problematic or undesirable behaviours in the horse. The visual system provides the horse with direct access to immediate environmental stimuli that affect behaviour but vision in the horse is of yet not fully investigated or understood. Further investigations of the equine visual system will benefit our understanding of equine perception, cognitive function and the subsequent link with learning and training. More detailed comparative investigations of feral or free-ranging and domestic horses may provide useful evidence of attention, stress and motivational issues affecting behavioural and learning processes in the horse. The challenge for scientists is, as always, to design and commission experiments that will investigate and provide insight into these processes in a manner that withstands scientific scrutiny.
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Boyd, L. (1986). Behavior problems of equids in zoos. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 653–664.
Abstract: Behavior problems in zoo equids commonly result from a failure to provide for needs basic to equine nature. Equids are gregarious, and failure to provide companions may result in pacing. Wild equids spend 60 to 70 per cent of their time grazing, and failure to provide ad libitum roughage contributes to the problems of pacing, cribbing, wood chewing, and coprophagia. Mimicking the normal processes of juvenile dispersal, bachelor-herd formation, and mate acquisition reduces the likelihood of agonistic and reproductive behavior problems. Infanticide can be avoided by introducing new stallions to herds containing only nonpregnant mares and older foals.
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Clutton-Brock, T. H., Greenwood, P. J., & Powell, R. P. (1976). Ranks and relationships in Highland ponies and Highland Cows. Z. Tierpsychol., 41(2), 202–216.
Abstract: Recent studies of primates have questioned the importance of dominance hierarchies in groups living under natural conditions. In a herd of Highland ponies and one of Highland cattle grazing under free-range conditions on the Isle of Rhum (Inner Hebrides) well defined hierarchies were present. The provision of food produced a marked increase in the frequency of agonistic interactions but had no effect on the rank systems of the two herds. While rank was clearly important in affecting the distribution of agonistic interactions, it was poorly related to behaviour in non-agonistic situations.
Keywords: Agonistic Behavior; Animals; *Cattle; Female; Grooming; *Horses; Male; *Social Dominance; Spatial Behavior
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Keiper, R., & Houpt, K. (1984). Reproduction in feral horses: an eight-year study. Am J Vet Res, 45(5), 991–995.
Abstract: The reproductive rate and foal survival of the free-ranging ponies on Assateague Island National Seashore were studied for 8 years, 1975 to 1982. Most (52%) of the 86 foals were born in May, 13% were born in April, 22.6% in June, 10.4% in July, and less than 1% in August and September. The mean foaling rate was 57.1 +/- 3.9% and the survival rate was 88.3 +/- 3.6%. Forty-eight colts and 55 fillies were born (sex ratio 53% female). Mares less than 3 years old did not foal and the foaling rate of 3-year-old mares was only 23%, that of 4-year-old mares was 46%, that of 5-year-old mares was 53%, and 6-year-old mares was 69%. The relatively poor reproduction rate was believed to be a consequence of the stress of lactating while carrying a foal when forage quality on the island was low. The hypothesis was supported by the higher reproductive rate (74.4 +/- 2.4%) of the ponies in the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on the southern part of the island. Their foals are weaned and sold in July each year. Despite the low reproductive rate on Assateague Island National Seashore , the number of ponies increased from 43 to 80, a 90% increase in the 8-year period or greater than 10%/yr. There were 24 deaths and 8 dispersals from the study area.
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Cancedda, M. (1990). [Social and behavioral organization of horses on the Giara (Sardinia): distribution and aggregation]. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper, 66(11), 1089–1096.
Abstract: In this paper some considerations on the environment of the 42 Kmq of the volcanic-basaltic Giara tableland are discussed. Conditioning by the environment and its effect on the distribution of a population of 712 horses is illustrated in view of their social and behavioural organization.
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Beaver, B. V. (1986). Aggressive behavior problems. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 635–644.
Abstract: Accurate diagnosis of the cause of aggression in horses is essential to determining the appropriate course of action. The affective forms of aggression include fear-induced, pain-induced, intermale, dominance, protective, maternal, learned, and redirected aggressions. Non-affective aggression includes play and sex-related forms. Irritable aggression and hypertestosteronism in mares are medical problems, whereas genetic factors, brain dysfunction, and self-mutilation are also concerns.
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Keiper, R. R. (1986). Social structure. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 465–484.
Abstract: Socially feral horses live in stable social groups characterized by one adult male, a number of adult females, and their offspring up to 2 years of age. Extra males either live by themselves or with other males in bachelor groups. The bands occupy nondefended home ranges that often overlap. Many abnormal behaviors seen in domestic horses occur because some aspect of their normal social behavior cannot be carried out in captivity.
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Craig, J. V. (1986). Measuring social behavior: social dominance. J. Anim Sci., 62(4), 1120–1129.
Abstract: Social dominance develops more slowly when young animals are kept in intact peer groups where they need not compete for resources. Learned generalizations may cause smaller and weaker animals to accept subordinate status readily when confronted with strangers that would be formidable opponents. Sexual hormones and sensitivity to them can influence the onset of aggression and status attained. After dominance orders are established, they tend to be stable in female groups but are less so in male groups. Psychological influences can affect dominance relationships when strangers meet and social alliances within groups may affect relative status of individuals. Whether status associated with agonistic behavior is correlated with control of space and scarce resources needs to be determined for each species and each kind of resource. When such correlations exists, competitive tests and agonistic behavior associated with gaining access to scarce resources can be useful to the observer in learning about dominance relationships rapidly. Examples are given to illustrate how estimates of social dominance can be readily attained and some strengths and weaknesses of the various methods.
Keywords: Aggression; Agonistic Behavior; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Cattle; Chickens; Competitive Behavior; Female; Horses; Male; *Social Dominance; Swine
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Beaver, B. V. (1981). Problems & values associated with dominance. Vet Med Small Anim Clin, 76(8), 1129–1131. |