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Author |
Preston, S.D.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title |
Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Behavioral and Brain Sciences |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav Brain Sci |
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Volume |
25 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
1-20; discussion 20-71 |
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Keywords |
Adult; Animals; Child; Emotions/physiology; *Empathy; Evolution; Haplorhini; Helping Behavior; Humans; Mental Disorders/physiopathology/psychology; Morals; Personality Development; Phylogeny; Prefrontal Cortex/physiopathology; Socialization |
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Abstract |
There is disagreement in the literature about the exact nature of the phenomenon of empathy. There are emotional, cognitive, and conditioning views, applying in varying degrees across species. An adequate description of the ultimate and proximate mechanism can integrate these views. Proximately, the perception of an object's state activates the subject's corresponding representations, which in turn activate somatic and autonomic responses. This mechanism supports basic behaviors (e.g., alarm, social facilitation, vicariousness of emotions, mother-infant responsiveness, and the modeling of competitors and predators) that are crucial for the reproductive success of animals living in groups. The Perception-Action Model (PAM), together with an understanding of how representations change with experience, can explain the major empirical effects in the literature (similarity, familiarity, past experience, explicit teaching, and salience). It can also predict a variety of empathy disorders. The interaction between the PAM and prefrontal functioning can also explain different levels of empathy across species and age groups. This view can advance our evolutionary understanding of empathy beyond inclusive fitness and reciprocal altruism and can explain different levels of empathy across individuals, species, stages of development, and situations. |
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University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics, 2RCP-Neurology Clinic, Iowa City, IA 52242. stephanie-d-preston@uiowa.edu |
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0140-525X |
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PMID:12625087 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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181 |
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Author |
Macphail, E.M. |
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Title |
Cognitive function in mammals: the evolutionary perspective |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1996 |
Publication |
Brain research. Cognitive brain research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Brain Res Cogn Brain Res |
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Volume |
3 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
279-290 |
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Animals; Cognition/*physiology; Conditioning (Psychology)/*physiology; Evolution; Humans; Learning/*physiology; Task Performance and Analysis |
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Abstract |
The work of behavioural pharmacologists has concentrated on small animals, such as rodents and pigeons. The validity of extrapolation of their findings to humans depends upon the existence of parallels in both physiology and psychology between these animals and humans. This paper considers the question whether there are in fact substantial cognitive parallels between, first, different non-human groups of vertebrates and, second, non-humans and humans. Behavioural data from 'simple' tasks, such as habituation and conditioning, do not point to species differences among vertebrates. Using examples that concentrate on the performance of rodents and birds, it is argued that, similarly, data from more complex tasks (learning-set formation, transitive inference, and spatial memory serve as examples) reveal few if any cognitive differences amongst non-human vertebrates. This conclusion supports the notion that association formation may be the critical problem-solving process available to non-human animals; associative mechanisms are assumed to have evolved to detect causal links between events, and would therefore be relevant in all ecological niches. In agreement with this view, recent advances in comparative neurology show striking parallels in functional organisation of mammalian and avian telencephalon. Finally, it is argued that although the peculiarly human capacity for language marks a large cognitive contrast between humans and non-humans, there is good evidence-in particular, from work on implicit learning--that the learning mechanisms available to non--humans are present and do play an important role in human cognition. |
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Department of Psychology, University of York at Heslington, UK |
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0926-6410 |
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PMID:8806029 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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603 |
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Ratcliffe, J.M.; Fenton, M.B.; Shettleworth, S.J. |
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Title |
Behavioral flexibility positively correlated with relative brain volume in predatory bats |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Brain, behavior and evolution |
Abbreviated Journal |
Brain Behav Evol |
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Volume |
67 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
165-176 |
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Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Brain/*anatomy & histology/physiology; Chiroptera/*anatomy & histology/*physiology; Organ Size; Predatory Behavior/*physiology |
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Abstract |
We investigated the potential relationships between foraging strategies and relative brain and brain region volumes in predatory (animal-eating) echolocating bats. The species we considered represent the ancestral state for the order and approximately 70% of living bat species. The two dominant foraging strategies used by echolocating predatory bats are substrate-gleaning (taking prey from surfaces) and aerial hawking (taking airborne prey). We used species-specific behavioral, morphological, and ecological data to classify each of 59 predatory species as one of the following: (1) ground gleaning, (2) behaviorally flexible (i.e., known to both glean and hawk prey), (3) clutter tolerant aerial hawking, or (4) open-space aerial hawking. In analyses using both species level data and phylogenetically independent contrasts, relative brain size was larger in behaviorally flexible species. Further, relative neocortex volume was significantly reduced in bats that aerially hawk prey primarily in open spaces. Conversely, our foraging behavior index did not account for variability in hippocampus and inferior colliculus volume and we discuss these results in the context of past research. |
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Department of Zoology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. jmr247@cornell.edu |
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0006-8977 |
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PMID:16415571 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
358 |
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Author |
Shettleworth, S.J. |
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Title |
Memory and hippocampal specialization in food-storing birds: challenges for research on comparative cognition |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
Brain, behavior and evolution |
Abbreviated Journal |
Brain Behav Evol |
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Volume |
62 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
108-116 |
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Animals; Birds/*physiology; Cognition/*physiology; Color Perception/physiology; Feeding Behavior/*physiology; Hippocampus/*physiology; Memory/*physiology; Species Specificity |
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The three-way association among food-storing behavior, spatial memory, and hippocampal enlargement in some species of birds is widely cited as an example of a new 'cognitive ecology' or 'neuroecology.' Whether this relationship is as strong as it first appears and whether it might be evidence for an adaptive specialization of memory and hippocampus in food-storers have recently been the subject of some controversy [Bolhuis and Macphail, 2001; Macphail and Bolhuis, 2001]. These critiques are based on misconceptions about the nature of adaptive specializations in cognition, misconceptions about the uniformity of results to be expected from applying the comparative method to data from a wide range of species, and a narrow view of what kinds of cognitive adaptations are theoretically interesting. New analyses of why food-storers (black-capped chickadees, Poecile Atricapilla) respond preferentially to spatial over color cues when both are relevant in a memory task show that this reflects a relative superiority of spatial memory as compared to memory for color rather than exceptional spatial attention or spatial discrimination ability. New studies of chickadees from more or less harsh winter climates also support the adaptive specialization hypothesis and suggest that within-species comparisons may be especially valuable for unraveling details of the relationships among ecology, memory, and brain in food-storing species. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., M5S 3G3, Canada. shettle@psych.utoronto.ca |
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0006-8977 |
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PMID:12937349 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
367 |
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Author |
Gibson, B.M.; Shettleworth, S.J.; McDonald, R.J. |
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Title |
Finding a goal on dry land and in the water: differential effects of disorientation on spatial learning |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Behavioural brain research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Brain. Res. |
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Volume |
123 |
Issue |
1 |
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103-111 |
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Animals; Cues; Environment; Male; Maze Learning/*physiology; Orientation/*physiology; Rats; Rats, Long-Evans; Spatial Behavior/*physiology; Water |
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Abstract |
Two previous studies, Martin et al. (J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process. 23 (1997) 183) and Dudchenko et al. (J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process. 23 (1997) 194), report that, compared to non-disoriented controls, rats disoriented before testing were disrupted in their ability to learn the location of a goal on a dry radial-arm maze task, but that both groups learned at the same rate in the Morris water maze. However, the radial-arm maze task was much more difficult than the water maze. In the current set of experiments, we examined the performance of control and disoriented rats on more comparable dry land and water maze tasks. Compared to non-disoriented rats, rats that were disoriented before testing were significantly impaired in locating a goal in a circular dry arena, but not a water tank. The results constrain theoretical explanations for the differential effects of disorientation on different spatial tasks. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3G3. gibson@psych.utoronto.ca |
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0166-4328 |
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PMID:11377733 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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372 |
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Author |
Hampton, R.R.; Sherry, D.F.; Shettleworth, S.J.; Khurgel, M.; Ivy, G. |
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Title |
Hippocampal volume and food-storing behavior are related in parids |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1995 |
Publication |
Brain, behavior and evolution |
Abbreviated Journal |
Brain Behav Evol |
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45 |
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1 |
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54-61 |
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Animals; Appetitive Behavior/*physiology; Birds/*anatomy & histology; Brain Mapping; Evolution; Food Preferences/physiology; Hippocampus/*anatomy & histology; Mental Recall/*physiology; Orientation/*physiology; Predatory Behavior/physiology; Social Environment; Species Specificity |
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The size of the hippocampus has been previously shown to reflect species differences and sex differences in reliance on spatial memory to locate ecologically important resources, such as food and mates. Black-capped chickadees (Parus atricapillus) cached more food than did either Mexican chickadees (P. sclateri) or bridled titmice (P. wollweberi) in two tests of food storing, one conducted in an aviary and another in smaller home cages. Black-capped chickadees were also found to have a larger hippocampus, relative to the size of the telencephalon, than the other two species. Differences in the frequency of food storing behavior among the three species have probably produced differences in the use of hippocampus-dependent memory and spatial information processing to recover stored food, resulting in graded selection for size of the hippocampus. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada |
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0006-8977 |
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PMID:7866771 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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379 |
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Author |
Pepperberg, I.M. |
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Title |
In search of king Solomon's ring: cognitive and communicative studies of Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Brain, behavior and evolution |
Abbreviated Journal |
Brain Behav Evol |
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Volume |
59 |
Issue |
1-2 |
Pages |
54-67 |
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*Animal Communication; Animals; Attention/physiology; Cognition/*physiology; Cues; Form Perception/physiology; Humans; Intelligence; Learning/physiology; Male; Models, Psychological; Parrots/*physiology; Psychomotor Performance/physiology; Reward; Social Behavior |
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During the past 24 years, I have used a modeling technique (M/R procedure) to train Grey parrots to use an allospecific code (English speech) referentially; I then use the code to test their cognitive abilities. The oldest bird, Alex, labels more than 50 different objects, 7 colors, 5 shapes, quantities to 6, 3 categories (color, shape, material) and uses 'no', 'come here', wanna go X' and 'want Y' (X and Y are appropriate location or item labels). He combines labels to identify, request, comment upon or refuse more than 100 items and to alter his environment. He processes queries to judge category, relative size, quantity, presence or absence of similarity/difference in attributes, and show label comprehension. He semantically separates labeling from requesting. He thus exhibits capacities once presumed limited to humans or nonhuman primates. Studies on this and other Greys show that parrots given training that lacks some aspect of input present in M/R protocols (reference, functionality, social interaction) fail to acquire referential English speech. Examining how input affects the extent to which parrots acquire an allospecific code may elucidate mechanisms of other forms of exceptional learning: learning unlikely in the normal course of development but that can occur under certain conditions. |
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The MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, Mass. 02139, USA. impepper@media.mit.edu |
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0006-8977 |
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PMID:12097860 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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579 |
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Author |
Acuna, B.D.; Sanes, J.N.; Donoghue, J.P. |
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Title |
Cognitive mechanisms of transitive inference |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Experimental brain research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation cerebrale |
Abbreviated Journal |
Exp Brain Res |
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146 |
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1 |
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1-10 |
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Adolescent; Adult; Attention/*physiology; Cognition/*physiology; Female; Humans; Learning/physiology; Linear Models; Male; Photic Stimulation; Psychomotor Performance/physiology; Reaction Time/physiology |
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Abstract |
We examined how the brain organizes interrelated facts during learning and how the facts are subsequently manipulated in a transitive inference (TI) paradigm (e.g., if A<B and B<C, then A<C). This task determined features such as learned facts and behavioral goals, but the learned facts could be organized in any of several ways. For example, if one learns a list by operating on paired items, the pairs may be stored individually as separate facts and reaction time (RT) should decrease with learning. Alternatively, the pairs may be stored as a single, unified list, which may yield a different RT pattern. We characterized RT patterns that occurred as participants learned, by trial and error, the predetermined order of 11 shapes. The task goal was to choose the shape occurring closer to the end of the list, and feedback about correctness was provided during this phase. RT increased even as its variance decreased during learning, suggesting that the learnt knowledge became progressively unified into a single representation, requiring more time to manipulate as participants acquired relational knowledge. After learning, non-adjacent (NA) list items were presented to examine how participants reasoned in a TI task. The task goal also required choosing from each presented pair the item occurring closer to the list end, but without feedback. Participants could solve the TI problems by applying formal logic to the previously learnt pairs of adjacent items; alternatively, they could manipulate a single, unified representation of the list. Shorter RT occurred for NA pairs having more intervening items, supporting the hypothesis that humans employ unified mental representations during TI. The response pattern does not support mental logic solutions of applying inference rules sequentially, which would predict longer RT with more intervening items. We conclude that the brain organizes information in such a way that reflects the relations among the items, even if the facts were learned in an arbitrary order, and that this representation is subsequently used to make inferences. |
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Department of Neuroscience, Box 1953, Brown Medical School, Providence, RI 02912, USA |
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0014-4819 |
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PMID:12192572 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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602 |
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Sovrano, V.A.; Rainoldi, C.; Bisazza, A.; Vallortigara, G. |
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Roots of brain specializations: preferential left-eye use during mirror-image inspection in six species of teleost fish |
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1999 |
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Behavioural Brain Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Brain. Res. |
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106 |
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1-2 |
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175-180 |
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Predator fixation; Fish; Left-eye preference |
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It has recently been reported that predator inspection is more likely to occur when a companion (i.e. the mirror image of the test animal) is visible on the left rather than on the right side of mosquitofish Gambusia holbrooki. This very unexpected outcome could be consistent with the hypothesis of a preferential use of the right eye during sustained fixation of a predator as well as of a preferential use of the left eye during fixation of conspecifics. We measured the time spent in monocular viewing during inspection of their own mirror images in females of six species of fish, belonging to different families--G. holbrooki, Xenotoca eiseni, Phoxinus phoxinus, Pterophyllum scalare, Xenopoecilus sarasinorum, and Trichogaster trichopterus. Results revealed a consistent left-eye preference during sustained fixation in all of the five species. Males of G. holbrooki, which do not normally show any social behaviour, did not exhibit any eye preferences during mirror-image inspection. We found, however, that they could be induced to manifest a left-eye preference, likewise females, if tested soon after capture, when some affiliative tendencies can be observed. These findings add to current evidence in a variety of vertebrate species for preferential involvement of structures located in the right side of the brain in response to the viewing of conspecifics. |
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Hoshaw, B.A.; Evans, J.C.; Mueller, B.; Valentino, R.J.; Lucki, I. |
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Social competition in rats: Cell proliferation and behavior |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
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Behavioural Brain Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Brain. Res. |
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175 |
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2 |
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343-351 |
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Social stress; Depression; Forced swim test; Neurogenesis |
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Behavioral and physiological changes were studied following prolonged exposure to social competition in pairs of non-food-deprived rats competing daily for a limited supply of graham cracker crumbs. Stable dominant-subordinate relationships developed in most pairs, as measured by feeding time, which were maintained over a 5-6-week study period. In other behavioral tests, subordinates demonstrated a decreased latency to immobility in the forced swim test compared with dominants, but no difference in locomotor activity. Subordinates had increased bladder size, decreased adrenal gland size, and a 35% reduction of hippocampus cell proliferation compared with the dominant member. Therefore, prolonged social competition, based on restricted access to palatable substances, produced hierarchies among individuals that were associated with differences in behavior, physiology and hippocampal cell proliferation. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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802 |
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