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| Author |
Hare, B.; Call, J.; Agnetta, B.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2000 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
59 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
771-785 |
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We report a series of experiments on social problem solving in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. In each experiment a subordinate and a dominant individual were put into competition over two pieces of food. In all experiments dominants obtained virtually all of the foods to which they had good visual and physical access. However, subordinates were successful quite often in three situations in which they had better visual access to the food than the dominant, for example, when the food was positioned so that only the subordinate (and not the dominant) could see it. In some cases, the subordinate might have been monitoring the behaviour of the dominant directly and simply avoided the food that the dominant was moving towards (which just happened to be the one it could see). In other cases, however, we ruled out this possibility by giving subordinates a small headstart and forcing them to make their choice (to go to the food that both competitors could see, or the food that only they could see) before the dominant was released into the area. Together with other recent studies, the present investigation suggests that chimpanzees know what conspecifics can and cannot see, and, furthermore, that they use this knowledge to devise effective social-cognitive strategies in naturally occurring food competition situations. |
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| Author |
Hare, B.; Call, J.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know? |
Type |
Journal Article |
| Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
61 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
139-151 |
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We conducted three experiments on social problem solving by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. In each experiment a subordinate and a dominant individual competed for food, which was placed in various ways on the subordinate's side of two opaque barriers. In some conditions dominants had not seen the food hidden, or food they had seen hidden was moved elsewhere when they were not watching (whereas in control conditions they saw the food being hidden or moved). At the same time, subordinates always saw the entire baiting procedure and could monitor the visual access of their dominant competitor as well. If subordinates were sensitive to what dominants did or did not see during baiting, they should have preferentially approached and retrieved the food that dominants had not seen hidden or moved. This is what they did in experiment 1 when dominants were either uninformed or misinformed about the food's location. In experiment 2 subordinates recognized, and adjusted their behaviour accordingly, when the dominant individual who witnessed the hiding was replaced with another dominant individual who had not witnessed it, thus demonstrating their ability to keep track of precisely who has witnessed what. In experiment 3 subordinates did not choose consistently between two pieces of hidden food, one of which dominants had seen hidden and one of which they had not seen hidden. However, their failure in this experiment was likely to be due to the changed nature of the competition under these circumstances and not to a failure of social-cognitive skills. These findings suggest that at least in some situations (i.e. competition with conspecifics) chimpanzees know what conspecifics have and have not seen (do and do not know), and that they use this information to devise effective social-cognitive strategies. Copyright 2001 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. |
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Department of Psychology and Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Emory University |
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0003-3472 |
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PMID:11170704 |
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588 |
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Byrnl, R.W.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Do rats ape? |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
1995 |
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Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
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50 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
1417-1420 |
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589 |
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Hare, B.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris) Use Human and Conspecific Social Cues to Locate Hidden Food |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
1999 |
Publication |
Journal of Comparative Psychology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Comp. Psychol. |
| Volume |
113 |
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2 |
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173-177 |
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Ten domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) of different breeds and ages were exposed to 2 different social cues indicating the location of hidden food, each provided by both a human informant and a conspecific informant (for a total of 4 different social cues). For the local enhancement cue, the informant approached the location where food was hidden and then stayed beside it. For the gaze and point cue, the informant stood equidistant between 2 hiding locations and bodily oriented and gazed toward the 1 in which food was hidden (the human informant also pointed). Eight of the 10 subjects, including the one 6-month-old juvenile, were above chance with 2 or more cues. Results are discussed in terms of the phylogenetic and ontogenetic processes by means of which dogs come to use social cues to locate food. |
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590 |
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Tomasello, M.; Call, J.; Hare, B. |
| Title |
Five primate species follow the visual gaze of conspecifics |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
1998 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
55 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
1063-1069 |
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Individuals from five primate species were tested experimentally for their ability to follow the visual gaze of conspecifics to an outside object. Subjects were from captive social groups of chimpanzees,Pan troglodytes, sooty mangabeys,Cercocebus atys torquatus, rhesus macaques,Macaca mulatta, stumptail macaques,M. arctoides, and pigtail macaques,M. nemestrina. Experimental trials consisted of an experimenter inducing one individual to look at food being displayed, and then observing the reaction of another individual (the subject) that was looking at that individual (not the food). Control trials consisted of an experimenter displaying the food in an identical manner when the subject was alone. Individuals from all species reliably followed the gaze of conspecifics, looking to the food about 80% of the time in experimental trials, compared with about 20% of the time in control trials. Results are discussed in terms of both the proximate mechanisms that might be involved and the adaptive functions that might be served by gaze-following. |
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no |
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592 |
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| Author |
Hare, B.; Brown, M.; Williamson, C.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
The domestication of social cognition in dogs |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Science (New York, N.Y.) |
Abbreviated Journal |
Science |
| Volume |
298 |
Issue |
5598 |
Pages |
1634-1636 |
| Keywords |
Animals; *Animals, Domestic; *Behavior, Animal; *Cognition; *Cues; *Dogs; Food; Humans; Memory; Pan troglodytes; *Social Behavior; Species Specificity; Vision; Wolves |
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Dogs are more skillful than great apes at a number of tasks in which they must read human communicative signals indicating the location of hidden food. In this study, we found that wolves who were raised by humans do not show these same skills, whereas domestic dog puppies only a few weeks old, even those that have had little human contact, do show these skills. These findings suggest that during the process of domestication, dogs have been selected for a set of social-cognitive abilities that enable them to communicate with humans in unique ways. |
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Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. bhare@fas.harvard.edu |
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1095-9203 |
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PMID:12446914 |
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595 |
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Tomasello, M.; Hare, B.; Fogleman, T. |
| Title |
The ontogeny of gaze following in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, and rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
| Volume |
61 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
335-343 |
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Primates follow the gaze direction of conspecifics to outside objects. We followed the ontogeny of this social-cognitive skill for two species: rhesus macaques and chimpanzees. In the first two experiments, using both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design, we exposed individuals of different ages to a human looking in a specified direction. Rhesus infants first began reliably to follow the direction of this gaze at the end of the early infancy period, at about 5.5 months of age. Chimpanzees did not reliably follow human gaze until 3-4 years; this corresponds to the latter part of the late infancy period for this species. In the third experiment we exposed individuals of the same two species to a human repeatedly looking to the same location (with no special object at that location) to see if subjects would learn to ignore the looks. Only adults of the two species diminished their gaze-following behaviour over trials. This suggests that in the period between infancy and adulthood individuals of both species come to integrate their gaze-following skills with their more general social-cognitive knowledge about other animate beings and their behaviour, and so become able to deploy their gaze-following skills in a more flexible manner. |
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596 |
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Brauer, J.; Kaminski, J.; Riedel, J.; Call, J.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Making inferences about the location of hidden food: social dog, causal ape |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
Publication |
Journal of comparative psychology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
| Volume |
120 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
38-47 |
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Animals; Communication; Cues; Dogs; Exploratory Behavior; *Feeding Behavior; Female; *Food; Male; Pan paniscus; Pan troglodytes; *Visual Perception |
| Abstract |
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and great apes from the genus Pan were tested on a series of object choice tasks. In each task, the location of hidden food was indicated for subjects by some kind of communicative, behavioral, or physical cue. On the basis of differences in the ecologies of these 2 genera, as well as on previous research, the authors hypothesized that dogs should be especially skillful in using human communicative cues such as the pointing gesture, whereas apes should be especially skillful in using physical, causal cues such as food in a cup making noise when it is shaken. The overall pattern of performance by the 2 genera strongly supported this social-dog, causal-ape hypothesis. This result is discussed in terms of apes' adaptations for complex, extractive foraging and dogs' adaptations, during the domestication process, for cooperative communication with humans. |
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Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. jbraeuer@eva.mpg.de |
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Washington, D.C. : 1983 |
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0735-7036 |
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PMID:16551163 |
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yes |
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597 |
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Call, J.; Brauer, J.; Kaminski, J.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are sensitive to the attentional state of humans |
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Journal Article |
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2003 |
Publication |
Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
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117 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
257-263 |
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Animals; *Appetitive Behavior; *Attention; *Bonding, Human-Pet; *Concept Formation; Cues; Dogs/*psychology; Female; Humans; *Inhibition (Psychology); Male; Nonverbal Communication |
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Twelve domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) were given a series of trials in which they were forbidden to take a piece of visible food. In some trials, the human continued to look at the dog throughout the trial (control condition), whereas in others, the human (a) left the room, (b) turned her back, (c) engaged in a distracting activity, or (d) closed her eyes. Dogs behaved in clearly different ways in most of the conditions in which the human did not watch them compared with the control condition, in which she did. In particular, when the human looked at them, dogs retrieved less food, approached it in a more indirect way, and sat (as opposed to laid down) more often than in the other conditions. Results are discussed in terms of domestic dogs' social-cognitive skills and their unique evolutionary and ontogenetic histories. |
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Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. call@eva.mpg.de |
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Washington, D.C. : 1983 |
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0735-7036 |
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PMID:14498801 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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713 |
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Kaminski, J.; Call, J.; Tomasello, M. |
| Title |
Goats' behaviour in a competitive food paradigm: Evidence for perspective taking? |
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Journal Article |
| Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Behaviour |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behaviour |
| Volume |
143 |
Issue |
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Pages |
1341-1356 |
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SOCIAL COGNITION; GOATS; VISUAL PERSPECTIVE TAKING; COMPARATIVE COGNITION |
| Abstract |
Many mammalian species are highly social, creating intra-group competition for such things as food and mates. Recent research with nonhuman primates indicates that in competitive situations individuals know what other individuals can and cannot see, and they use this knowledge to their advantage in various ways. In the current study, we extended these findings to a non-primate species, the domestic goat, using the conspecific competition paradigm developed by Hare et al. (2000). Like chimpanzees and some other nonhuman primates, goats live in fission-fusion societies, form coalitions and alliances, and are known to reconcile after fights. In the current study, a dominant and a subordinate individual competed for food, but in some cases the subordinate could see things that the dominant could not. In the condition where dominants could only see one piece of food but subordinates could see both, subordinates' preferences depended on whether they received aggression from the dominant animal during the experiment. Subjects who received aggression preferred the hidden over the visible piece of food, whereas subjects who never received aggression significantly preferred the visible piece. By using this strategy, goats who had not received aggression got significantly more food than the other goats. Such complex social interactions may be supported by cognitive mechanisms similar to those of chimpanzees. We discuss these results in the context of current issues in mammalian cognition and socio-ecology. |
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