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Krueger, K., Esch, L., Farmer, K., & Marr, I. (2021). Basic Needs in Horses?--A Literature Review. Animals, 11(6), 1798.
Abstract: Every animal species has particular environmental requirements that are essential for its welfare, and when these so-called “basic needs” are not fulfilled, the animals suffer. The basic needs of horses have been claimed to be social contact, social companionship, free movement and access to roughage. To assess whether horses suffer when one or more of the four proposed basic needs are restricted, we examined several studies (n = 38) that reported behavioural and physiological reactions to these restrictions. We assigned the studies according to the four types of responses investigated: (a) Stress, (b) Active, (c) Passive, and (d) Abnormal Behaviour. Furthermore, the number of studies indicating that horses reacted to the restrictions were compared with the number of studies reporting no reaction. The limited number of studies available on single management restrictions did not allow conclusions to be drawn on the effect of each restriction separately, especially in the case of social companionship. However, when combinations of social contact, free movement and access to roughage were restricted, many of the horses had developed responses consistent with suffering. Passive Responses, indicating acute suffering, and Abnormal Behaviour, indicating suffering currently or at some time in the past, were especially clearly demonstrated. This provides further evidence of the usefulness of assessing behavioural parameters in combination with physiological measurements when evaluating horse welfare. This meta-analysis of the literature confirms that it is justified to claim that social contact, free movement and access to roughage are basic needs in horses.
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Krueger, K., Schwarz, S., Marr, I., & Farmer, K. (2022). Laterality in Horse Training: Psychological and Physical Balance and Coordination and Strength Rather Than Straightness. Animals, 12(8), 1042.
Abstract: For centuries, a goal of training in many equestrian disciplines has been to straighten the horse, which is considered a key element in achieving its responsiveness and suppleness. However, laterality is a naturally occurring phenomenon in horses and encompasses body asymmetry, motor laterality and sensory laterality. Furthermore, forcibly counterbalancing motor laterality has been considered a cause of psychological imbalance in humans. Perhaps asymmetry and laterality should rather be accepted, with a focus on training psychological and physical balance, coordination and equal strength on both sides instead of enforcing “straightness”. To explore this, we conducted a review of the literature on the function and causes of motor and sensory laterality in horses, especially in horses when trained on the ground or under a rider. The literature reveals that body asymmetry is innate but does not prevent the horse from performing at a high level under a rider. Motor laterality is equally distributed in feral horses, while in domestic horses, age, breed, training and carrying a rider may cause left leg preferences. Most horses initially observe novel persons and potentially threatening objects or situations with their left sensory organs. Pronounced preferences for the use of left sensory organs or limbs indicate that the horse is experiencing increased emotionality or stress, and long-term insufficiencies in welfare, housing or training may result in left shifts in motor and sensory laterality and pessimistic mentalities. Therefore, increasing laterality can be regarded as an indicator for insufficiencies in housing, handling and training. We propose that laterality be recognized as a welfare indicator and that straightening the horse should be achieved by conducting training focused on balance, coordination and equal strength on both sides.
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Marr, I., Stefanski, V., & Krueger, K. (2022). Lateralität – ein Indikator für das Tierwohl?[Laterality – an animal welfare indicator?]. Der Praktische Tierarzt, 103(12/2022), 1246–12757.
Abstract: Ein gutes Tierwohl definiert sich nicht nur durch die Abwesenheit von Stressindikatoren, sondern auch durch das Vorhandensein von Indikatoren, die auf ein gutes Wohlergehen hinweisen. So können stressbedingte Erkrankungen vermieden werden. Zur Bestimmung des Tierwohls bei Pferden wurde daher untersucht, inwieweit sich die sensorische Lateralität (einseitiger Gebrauch von Sinnesorganen) und die motorische Lateralität (einseitiger Gebrauch von Gliedmaßen) als einfach, schnell und kostengünstig zu erhebende Parameter eignen. Hierzu werden neben aktueller Literatur auch die eigenen Untersuchungsergebnisse zusammenfassend dargestellt. Die nach außen sichtbar werdende sensorische und motorische Lateralität sind das Resultat der cerebralen Lateralisierung. Dies beinhaltet nicht nur die Aufgabenteilung beider Gehirnhälften für ein effizienteres Aufnehmen und Speichern von Informationen, sondern sie steht auch in Verbindung mit der Entstehung und Verarbeitung von Emotionen, die maßgeblich am Wohlergehen eines Lebewesens beteiligt sind. Kurzzeitige Stressoren führen zu einer Erregung, die je nach Erfahrungen mit positiven oder negativen Emotionen in Verbindung steht. Emotionen helfen dem Organismus dabei, zu überleben. Andauernde negative Emotionen durch regelmäßige oder anhaltende negative Ereignisse führen zu Stress und reduzieren die Erwartung positiver Ereignisse (negativer cognitive Bias). Das Tier ist im Wohlergehen beeinträchtigt. Jüngst zeigte insbesondere die Messung der motorischen Lateralität Potenzial als Indikator für lang anhaltenden und chronischen Stress, denn gestresste Pferde, deren Stresshormonlevel stark ansteigt, zeigen einen zunehmenden Gebrauch der linken Gliedmaßen über einen längeren Zeitraum. Weiterhin zeigen erste Messungen einen Zusammenhang zwischen einer linksseitigen motorischen Lateralität und einer reduzierten Erwartung positiver Ereignisse (negativer cognitive Bias). Zusammen mit der sensorischen Lateralität, die in einer akuten Stressphase ebenso eine Linksverschiebung zeigt und somit als Indikator für Kurzzeitstress gilt, kann eine generelle, vermehrte Linksseitigkeit auch einen Hinweis auf erhöhte Emotionalität und Stressanfälligkeit sein. Eine sich steigernde Linksseitigkeit bedeutet eine präferierte Informationsverarbeitung durch die rechte Gehirnhälfte, die beispielsweise reaktives Verhalten, starke Emotionen und Stressantworten steuert. Es stellte sich jedoch heraus, dass wie bei allen Stressindikatoren auch in der Lateralitätsmessung ein Vergleichswert aus einer vorangegangenen Messung notwendig ist, denn nur Veränderungen zum häufiger werdenden Gebrauch der linken Seite können auf Stress bei Pferden hindeuten und die parallele Erhebung weiterer Parameter, wie zum Beispiel das Verhalten oder Stresshormone, können die Aussage der Lateralität bekräftigen.
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Berger, A. (2015). Evaluation of living conditions in free running animals by chronobiological analysis of continuously recorded behavioural data. In Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting.
Abstract: We developed a biorhythmical method to assess behaviour patterns and to evaluate living conditions of animals. All kinds of continuous and equidistant long-term recordings of behaviour are suitable for this method. As simple behavioural parameters, such as motor activity, can be conveniently recorded by telemetry from wild animals now, it is possible to investigate stressors by analysing its biorhythmic structure. It is the purpose of this report to describe the basic idea, and the procedure, and to give some examples of application measured on Przewalski horses in an Semireserve.
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Berger, A., & Wolfram, M. (2015). Integration of zoo-kept Przewalski horses into a herd of Przewalski horses living in a semireserve. In Krueger. K. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting. Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Naturally, horses live in groups in which all individuals are long-term acquainted with each other and a stable hierarchical system is established. In conservation management, introduction of horses into foreign groups is often required but will lead to fights, stress and increased health risks for the animals. We investigated the integration process of four Przewalski mares from the Zoo Leipzig into the herd of five Przewalski horses of the semireserve Liebenthal (Brandenburg, Germany). We observed changes in social hierarchy as well as a higher stress level (expressed by disturbed activity pattern and lower synchronization with environmental conditions) especially in the introduced horses (from Zoo Leipzig). We investigated the animals continuously over two years to detect what time is needed for a successful integration. Finally, we give some advice for the integration of Przewalski horses into a new herd to reduce the stress of the animals substantially.
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Christensen, J. W. (2012). Object habituation in horses: Voluntary vs. negatively reinforced approach to frightening stimuli. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: The ability and ease of horses to habituate to frightening stimuli greatly increases safety in the horse-human relationship. Several different techniques have been suggested for habituation training of horses and under certain conditions, preventing animals from avoidance reactions during exposure to frightening stimuli is believed to facilitate habituation. Response prevention does, however, lead to a loss of control, which is a known stress inducer in both animals and humans. This experiment investigated whether horses show increased stress responses when negatively reinforced to approach a mildly frightening stimulus, compared to horses allowed to voluntarily explore the same stimulus. We further investigated whether the prevention of avoidance responses in horses that are negatively reinforced to approach the stimulus, facilitates habituation to the stimulus. Twenty-two 2-3 years old Danish warmblood geldings were included in the study. Half of the horses (NR group) were negatively reinforced (through halter and rope pressure) by a familiar human handler to approach a collection of frightening objects (six open and colourful umbrellas) placed in a semi-circle in a familiar test arena. The other half of the horses were released in the arena and were free to avoid or explore the objects (VOL group). On the next day, all horses were exposed to the objects again without a human to investigate the rate of habituation. Behavioural and heart rate responses were recorded on both days. Data were analysed in a two way repeated measures ANOVA and post hoc analysed via the Holm-Sidak method. In the VOL group, all horses initially chose to avoid the unknown objects, whereas the handler managed to get all horses in the NR group to approach and stand next to the objects within the first 2-min session. As expected, horses in the NR group had a significantly longer duration of alertness (sec, mean ± se: NR: 23 ± 4.1 vs. VOL: 16 ± 4.7, P=0.026) and a higher max HR in the first session (bpm, mean ± se: NR: 106 ± 5.2 vs. VOL: 88 ± 4.4, P=0.004). On the next day, however, the NR horses spent significantly less time investigating the objects (sec, mean ± se: NR: 13 ± 4.1 vs. VOL: 24 ± 6.0, P=0.005) and had a shorter latency to approach a feed container, placed next to the objects (sec, mean ± se: NR: 25 ± 3.9 vs. VOL: 47 ± 16.2, P=0.031), indicating increased habituation. In conclusion, negatively reinforced approach to mildly frightening objects appears to increase stress responses during the initial exposure, but also to facilitate habituation in young horses.
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Flauger, B., Möstl, E., & Krueger., K. (2012). The introduction of horses into new groups: Social interactions and cortisol release. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Domestic horses are kept in so-called “fate societies” where they have to deal with frequent mixing. Several studies have evaluated and discussed the aggression level and injury risk during the introduction of horses into new groups, but nothing is known about the endocrine responses and thus if horses experience stress during introduction.
In this study we analysed the efficiency of four approved introduction techniques and evaluated the introduction of 30 horses into 11 different groups. Horses were introduced: 1) immediately, 2) after observing the new group for several days, 3) together with an “integration horse” after several days of observation, or 4) with a mixed strategy. Aggressive as well as positive social behaviour between the introduced horses and the group members were analysed the two hours following the introduction event. In addition, we focussed on the glucocorticoid production of the newcomer horses by measuring faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) on the day of the introduction as well as the following three days.
For the four introduction techniques we found significant differences in the horses’ aggressive and submissive behaviour as well as in their total interactions. The introduction together with an integration horse led to significantly lower levels of aggression and less total interactions than the immediate introduction of single horses.
Horses which were introduced immediately or after an observation period showed significantly elevated levels of FCM on the first, second and third day after the introduction. For horses introduced together with an integration horse FCM were already significantly higher on the day of the introduction, indicating a stressful event before the introduction itself. In contrast, FCM levels were always very low when using the mixed technique.
In sum, horses have the ability to deal with conflict when they are introduced to new group members. The introduction event itself appears not to be as stressful as previously assumed. Standing together with an “integration horse” on a separate paddock and not being able to integrate immediately into a new group appears to be stressful for the newcomer. Based on the findings of our study we suggest to introduce new horses in group management together with a new group mate, a so-called “integration horse”. This would reduce the number of total social interactions as well as the aggression level. While this technique may be stressful for the newcomer, it lowers aggressive behaviour between the introduced horse and the group members and consequently reduces injury risks.
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Nagy, K., Bodó, G., Bárdos, G., & Harnos, A. (2008). Is modified Forssell"s operation superior to cribbing collar in preventing crib-biting in horses? In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Crib-biting (wind-sucking) might be a coping response of the horses to the challenges of
uncontrolled environmental events. Prevention of this stereotypic behaviour evokes
physiological responses consistent with increased stress. Reducing the incidence of cribbiting,
however, is important in order to prevent undesirable physical and behavioural
consequences (tooth erosion, altered gut function, gastric inflammation/ulceration, colic, etc.).
Common treatment of crib-biting is the application of a cribbing collar, which limits the
flexion of the neck making this stereotypic movement uncomfortable and difficult. Another
method, the modified Forssell"s operation, is becoming more and more popular amongst the
horse owners. It is based on the removal of the muscles used in crib-biting (m.omohyoideus,
m.sternohyoideus, m.sternothyrohyoideus) and the ventral branches of the spinal accessory
nerves. Surveys on the success of this surgical procedure have revealed inconsistent results,
and, contrary to the cribbing collar, its effect on the stress level have not been studied either.
The aim of our study was to determine whether the modified Forssell"s procedure is superior
to the cribbing collar treatment.
Differences in stress management was tested by a crib-biting provoking test, in which
surgically treated horses, crib-biting horses, crib-biting horses with cribbing collar, and
normal horses (those showing no stereotypies), altogether 56 horses were compared. In this
test, a food bucket had been placed out of the reach of the animal, from which titbits were
given 3 times. Behaviour and heart rate variability (HRV) of the horses were recorded and
analysed throughout the test. Hypotheses were tested by linear mixed model.
According to our results, both prevention methods (collar or surgery) inhibited crib-biting
successfully though not totally. Regarding behaviour and heart rate variability, horses
prevented from crib-biting (by collar or surgery) differed significantly from crib-biting and
normal horses but not from each other.
Normal horses were usually trying to reach the food-bucket while present and were standing
still afterwards, whereas the other three groups had not really made efforts to reach the
bucket, spent less time with resting, and performed or tried crib-biting. During the stress-test,
normal and crib-biting horses had shown good stress-adaptation to the challenge since their
HRV, after an initial increase, returned to the basal value by the end. On the contrary, HRV of
the two prevented groups remained elevated and showed large oscillations throughout. They
had not found a successful coping behaviour either.
Our results suggest that since prevention may significantly increase distress, the treatment in
itself, without changing the motivation of the horse to perform the replacement behaviour – it
seems to be unsatisfactory and insufficient. After prevention the motivation of the horse to
perform crib-biting should be addressed. In addition, considering that prevention by collar and
surgery had not resulted in any significant behavioural or physiological differences, the
superiority of the modified Forssell"s procedure might be questioned. However, the surgery
might be recommended if treatment with collar is ineffective.
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Stupperich, A., & Strack, M. (2008). Interaction with horses (equus): Assessment with a circumplex based questionnaire. In IESM 2008.
Abstract: According to Interpersonal Theory every interaction is motivated by efforts to achieve and maintain self-esteem and to avoid anxiety. People"s characteristic ways of accomplishing these ends are called interpersonal reflexes. Those interpersonal reflexes are evident in interaction with animals, since they are determined by the interpersonal traits of personality. We wanted to catch the typical interpersonal reflexes in between humans and horses compared to pet animals.
We used the self rating assessment instrument “Inventory of Problematic Interactions with Animals” (IPI – Animals), which bases on a Interpersonal Circumplex Model (Human Animal Circumplex; HAC) and was constructed to catch specific dispositions of distress caused by animals using two dimensions (too dominant vrs too submissive and too warm versus too cold). Data of 233 male adolescents (93 of them actual pet owners, from that 12 horse owners) were collected.
We found that different pet preferences holds distinct locations in the HAC. Horse persons differ from dog and cat persons within the dimension dominance (dog: chi2(df126) =161.54 p= .018; cat: chi2(df126) =199.95 p= .045). Persons, who own a horse or would wish to own one, describe themselves as dominant, but warm interactors. They report that they want horses to notice them. They tend do too much for them and behave very effusively with them. On the other hand they feel that the animal takes too much advantage of the relationship.
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Wyss, C. (2015). Does housing in a „social box“ change faecal cortisol metabolites concentration in stallions? In Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting.
Abstract: In order to improve the housing conditions of stallions in individual boxes by offering a possibility to have more social contact, the Swiss national stud farm tested a new box system for horses, allowing increased physical contact with the neighbouring stallion. The aim of this part of the study was to investigate whether this type of housing system (named “social box”) potentially induces a change in stress reactions in stallions compared to conventional boxes. Therefore faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentration was measured as a non-invasive parameter to assess endocrine responses related to this new environment.
Four groups each consisting of eight adult Freiberger breeding stallions were included in the test design. Every stallion spent three weeks in a conventional box and in a social box respectively (cross-over design). The conventional box consisted of a separation wall with a lower opaque part and an upper part with vertical barriers (5 cm between barriers), allowing visual and olfactory contact but strongly limiting tactile contact. The separating wall of the social box consisted of two lateral sections, one part being opaque to the ceiling and the second part consisting of vertical barriers (30 cm between barriers), allowing the horse to have physical contact with its neighbour or to avoid it.
In horses, FCM concentration reflects an average level of circulating cortisol over a period of approximatively 24h. Faecal samples were collected the day following integration in social / conventional boxes, reflecting the potential stress induced by increased social interactions during the integration. In order to asses potential chronical stress, faeces samples were also collected in week one, two and three after the integration into the social / conventional box (in total: 4 samples per horse and housing system). The samples were immediately stored at -20°C until they were analysed. The samples were not analysed in the laboratory until the end of the experiment, therefore the duration of conservation in the freezer varied from 40 to 429 days.
A considerable percentage of data from groups 1 and 2 was below the detection limit (<0.8 ng/g) (Tab. 1). Thus the statistical analysis was conducted with the FCM concentration from groups 3 and 4 (n horses = 16) which contained no values below the detection limit.
Tab. 1: Details about FCM values and storage time for the 4 groups of stallions
Group Storage duration [d] Proportion of data below the detection limit (<0.8 ng/g) Mean [ng/g] Median [ng/g]
Group 1 384-429 55.6 % 2.2 0
Group 2 315-360 25.5 % 5.8 6.3
Group 3 41-79 0.0 % 8.7 8.0
Group 4 40-85 0.0 % 5.8 5.4
Despite the impressive social interactions observed between the stallions directly after being introduced into the social boxes, we did not find any differences in FCM concentration between the stallions being introduced into the conventional box and the social box on the day of integration (social box: n samples = 16, mean±SD: 6.9±4.7 ng/g; conventional box: n samples = 16, mean±SD: 9.0±11.2 ng/g; Wilcoxon signed rank test V = 70, p = 0.94).
Overall the samples taken during integration and in week one, two and three did not show evidence of changes in FCM concentration in either housing system over a longer period of time (social box: n samples = 64, mean±SD: 7.9±6.2 ng/g; conventional box: n samples = 64, mean±SD: 6.6±3.4 ng/g; Linear mixed model (LMM), p = 0.56).
Our results suggest that the possibility of having physical contact with a conspecific does not induce changes in FCM concentration in breeding stallions. The considerable percentage of values below the detection limit in groups 1 and 2 seemed to correlate with the increasing duration of storage before analysis. During the IESM Network Meeting 2015, we would like to discuss possible methodological issues and the possibilities to correctly integrate these low values in the statistical analysis.
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