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Yeon, S. C. (2012). Acoustic communication in the domestic horse (Equus caballus). Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 7(3), 179–185.
Abstract: Equine vocalization and acoustic sounds can communicate a horse’s emotional state, physiological state, and situation to other individuals, including other horses and humans. These vocalizations and acoustic sounds can be divided into several types. The whinny, nicker, squeal, blow, snore, snort, roar, and groan are typical types of horse vocalizations and acoustic sounds. The sound localization thresholds of horses are markedly poorer than those of other large mammals, such as humans and elephants. The audiogram of horse has shown their best sensitivity and hearing range in which it perceives sound. Laryngeal diseases, such as laryngeal hemiplegia, dorsal displacement of the soft palate, and alar fold paralysis, can cause laryngeal sounds in the upper airway. The analyses of horses’ vocalizations and laryngeal sounds that are reviewed in this article were conducted with computer-aided analysis programs using spectrograms and spectra that evaluate several parameters, including amplitude, fundamental frequency, duration, and formants. Laryngeal sound analysis could be a useful method for diagnosing upper airway diseases. This article presents a review of the literature describing scientific analyses of horse vocalizations and acoustic sounds to elucidate equine acoustic communications and aid in the development of horse-human bonds.
Keywords: horse; communication; vocalization
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Henry, S., Zanella, A. J., Sankey, C., Richard-Yris, M. - A., Marko, A., & Hausberger, M. (2012). Adults may be used to alleviate weaning stress in domestic foals (Equus caballus). Physiology & Behavior, 106(4), 428–438.
Abstract: The present study aims to investigate whether the presence of unrelated adult horses at weaning would reduce the social stress of weaning and the emergence of undesirable behaviours. We tested this hypothesis in 32 domestic foals by comparing short and medium term behavioural and physiological responses to weaning in foals maintained in homogeneous groups of peers (PW) to those of foals grouped with both peers and unrelated adults (AW). In total, three trials were conducted, which each trial consisting of one AW group and one PW group. In all foals, weaning was followed by increased vocalization, increased locomotion and increased salivary cortisol concentration. However, signs of stress were less pronounced and shorter in duration in weanlings housed with unrelated adults (e.g. whinnies: p < 0.05; salivary cortisol: p < 0.05). Only foals without adults exhibited increased aggressiveness towards peers (p < 0.05) and abnormal behaviours (p < 0.05) such as excessive wood-chewing and redirected sucking towards peers. In conclusion, introducing adults to minimize weaning stress in foals and later on aggressiveness and abnormal behaviours appears as the most promising approach to date.
Keywords: Weaning; Social influence; Abnormal behaviours; Young-adult interactions; Welfare; Horse
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Lampe, J. F., & Andre, J. (2012). Cross-modal recognition of human individuals in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Animal Cognition, 15(4), 623–630.
Abstract: This study has shown that domestic horses are capable of cross-modal recognition of familiar humans. It was demonstrated that horses are able to discriminate between the voices of a familiar and an unfamiliar human without seeing or smelling them at the same moment. Conversely, they were able to discriminate the same persons when only exposed to their visual and olfactory cues, without being stimulated by their voices. A cross-modal expectancy violation setup was employed; subjects were exposed both to trials with incongruent auditory and visual/olfactory identity cues and trials with congruent cues. It was found that subjects responded more quickly, longer and more often in incongruent trials, exhibiting heightened interest in unmatched cues of identity. This suggests that the equine brain is able to integrate multisensory identity cues from a familiar human into a person representation that allows the brain, when deprived of one or two senses, to maintain recognition of this person.
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Fureix, C., Jego, P., Henry, S., Lansade, L., & Hausberger, M. (2012). Towards an Ethological Animal Model of Depression? A Study on Horses. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e39280 EP -.
Abstract: <sec><title>Background</title><p>Recent reviews question current animal models of depression and emphasise the need for ethological models of mood disorders based on animals living under natural conditions. Domestic horses encounter chronic stress, including potential stress at work, which can induce behavioural disorders (<italic>e.g.</italic> “apathy”). Our pioneering study evaluated the potential of domestic horses in their usual environment to become an ethological model of depression by testing this models’ face validity (<italic>i.e.</italic> behavioural similarity with descriptions of human depressive states).</p></sec><sec><title>Methodology/Principal Findings</title><p>We observed the spontaneous behaviour of 59 working horses in their home environment, focusing on immobility bouts of apparent unresponsiveness when horses displayed an atypical posture (termed <italic>withdrawn</italic> hereafter), evaluated their responsiveness to their environment and their anxiety levels, and analysed cortisol levels. Twenty-four percent of the horses presented the withdrawn posture, also characterized by gaze, head and ears fixity, a profile that suggests a spontaneous expression of “behavioural despair”. When compared with control “non-withdrawn” horses from the same stable, withdrawn horses appeared more indifferent to environmental stimuli in their home environment but reacted more emotionally in more challenging situations. They exhibited lower plasma cortisol levels. Withdrawn horses all belonged to the same breed and females were over-represented.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions/Significance</title><p>Horse might be a useful potential candidate for an animal model of depression. Face validity of this model appeared good, and potential genetic input and high prevalence of these disorders in females add to the convergence. At a time when current animal models of depression are questioned and the need for novel models is expressed, this study suggests that novel models and biomarkers could emerge from ethological approaches in home environments.</p></sec>
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Hoffmann, G., Bentke, A., Rose-Meierhöfer, S., Berg, W., Mazetti, P., & Hardarson, G. H. (2012). Influence of an active stable system on the behavior and body condition of Icelandic horses. animal, 6(10), 1684–1693.
Abstract: Horses are often stabled in individual boxes, a method that does not meet their natural needs and may cause psychical and
musculoskeletal diseases. This problem is particularly evident in Iceland, where horses often spend the long winter periods in cramped boxes. The aim of this study was to analyze the suitability of a group housing system in Iceland, but the results are also applicable to horses of other regions. Eight Icelandic horses were observed in an active stable system, and their behavior and time budget were recorded. Movement and lying behavior were studied with ALT (Activity, Lying, Temperature detection) pedometers. The effect of an automatic concentrate feeding station (CFS) on the horses’ behavior was examined. In the first period of investigation, the horses were fed concentrates manually, and in the second period, they were fed with the CFS. Additional behavioral observations and a determination of social hierarchy occurred directly or by video surveillance. The physical condition of the horses was recorded by body weight (BW) measurement and body condition scoring (BCS). The results showed a significant increase between the first and second trial periods in both the activity (P,0.001) and the lying time (P50.003) of the horses with use of the CFS. However, there was no significant change in BW during the first period without the CFS (P50.884) or during the second period with the CFS (P50.540). The BCS of the horses was constant at a very good level during both trial periods, and the horses showed a low level of aggression, a firm social hierarchy and behavioral synchronization. This study concludes that group housing according to the active stable principle is a welfare-friendly option for keeping horses and is a suitable alternative to conventional individual boxes. |
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Christensen, J. W., Ahrendt, L. P., Lintrup, R., Gaillard, C., Palme, R., & Malmkvist, J. (2012). Does learning performance in horses relate to fearfulness, baseline stress hormone, and social rank? In Applied Animal Behaviour Science (Vol. 140, pp. 44–52).
Abstract: The ability of horses to learn and remember new tasks is fundamentally important for their use by humans. Fearfulness may, however, interfere with learning, because stimuli in the environment can overshadow signals from the rider or handler. In addition, prolonged high levels of stress hormones can affect neurons within the hippocampus; a brain region central to learning and memory. In a series of experiments, we aimed to investigate the link between performance in two learning tests, the baseline level of stress hormones, measured as faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM), fearfulness, and social rank. Twenty-five geldings (2 or 3 years old) pastured in one group were included in the study. The learning tests were performed by professional trainers and included a number of predefined stages during which the horses were gradually trained to perform exercises, using either negative (NR) or positive reinforcement (PR). Each of the learning tests lasted 3 days; 7min/horse/day. The NR test was repeated in a novel environment. Performance, measured as final stage in the training programme, and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Faeces were collected on four separate days where the horses had been undisturbed at pasture for 48h. Social rank was determined through observations of social interactions during feeding. The fear test was a novel object test during which behaviour and HR were recorded. Performance in the NR and PR learning tests did not correlate. In the NR test, there was a significant, negative correlation between performance and HR in the novel environment (rS=-0.66, P<0.001, i.e. nervous horses had reduced performance), whereas there was no such correlation in the home environment (both NR and PR). Behavioural reactions in the fear test correlated significantly with performance in the NR test in the novel environment (e.g. object alertness and final stage: rS=-0.43, P=0.04), suggesting that performance under unfamiliar, stressful conditions may be predicted by behavioural responses in a fear test. There was a negative correlation between social rank and baseline stress hormones (rS=-0.43, P=0.04), i.e. high rank corresponded to low FCM concentrations, whereas neither rank nor FCM correlated with fearfulness or learning performance. We conclude that performance under stressful conditions is affected by activation of the sympathetic nervous system during training and related to behavioural responses in a standardised fear test. Learning performance in the home environment, however, appears unrelated to fearfulness, social rank and baseline FCM levels.
Keywords: Horse; Learning; Fearfulness; Stress; Reinforcement; Social rank
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Baumgartner M. (2012). Liegeverhalten von Pferden im Offenlaufstall auf unterschiedlichen Bodenmaterialien (Gummimatten, Späne und Sand) [Recumbency patterns of horses stabled in group housing systems on different bedding materials (rubber mats, shavings and sand)]. Ph.D. thesis, , Munich.
Abstract: Die angemessenste Art ein Pferd als soziales Wesen unter menschlicher Obhut zu halten, ist in der Gruppe mit Seinesgleichen. Dabei gilt der Offenlaufstall mit getrennten Funktionsbereichen (Mehrraum-Außenlaufstall mit Auslauf) als die tiergerechteste Haltungsform für Pferde (BMELV, 2009). Aus Gründen der Arbeits- und Kostenersparnis sowie zur Reduzierung der Keim- und Staubbelastung werden in jüngster Zeit vermehrt Gummimatten als Einstreuersatz in Liegehallen von Offenlaufställen eingesetzt.
In vorliegender Arbeit sollte überprüft werden, ob Gummimatten (7,5 cm hoch, schaumstoffgefüllt; HIT-Softbed plus®) in Kombination mit minimaler Späneeinstreu als Liegeunterlage in Liegehallen von Offenlaufställen als tiergerecht beurteilt werden können. Darüber hinaus galt es zu klären, ob die Klimaverhältnisse in den Liegehallen trotz nicht saugfähiger Gummiunterlage den hygienischen Anforderungen des BMELVs (2009) an das Stallklima entsprechen. Dazu wurde das Liegeverhalten von einer repräsentativen Anzahl von 56 Pferden in einem Offenlaufstall mit getrennten Funktionsbereichen an jeweils 6 Tagen je Jahreszeit (Frühling, Sommer, Herbst, Winter) mittels kontinuierlicher Videoaufzeichnungen (n= 24 Tage) und zusätzlichen visuellen Direkt-beobachtungen (n= 60 Std) erfasst. Die Pferde hatten zum Liegen die Wahl zwischen folgenden drei Arealen: drei identisch ausgestatteten, jedoch unterschiedlich großen Liegehallen (mittig Gummimatten; Randbereich Späneeinstreu), einem Unterstand (Sand), sowie einem Sandplatz. Die Größe der Liegefläche in den drei Liegehallen (LH I 172 m², LH II und III jeweils 143 m²) entsprach den Anforderungen des BMELVs (2009). Unterstand und Sandplatz konnten zusätzlich von den Pferden zum Ruhen im Liegen genutzt werden. Ergänzend wurden folgende Einflussfaktoren auf das Liegeverhalten der Pferde erfasst: Tageszeit, Jahreszeit und Witterung sowie Alter, Stockmaß, Gewicht, „Body Condition Score“ und Rangordnung. Durchschnittlich ruhten lediglich 35,2 der 52,3 in der Anlage befindlichen Pferde (67,3%) pro Beobachtungstag im Liegen in den Arealen. Demzufolge nahmen Zusammenfassung 213 viele Pferde nicht jede Nacht eine Liegeposition ein. Die Hauptliegezeit mit 72% der erfassten Liegephasen war zwischen 0 und 6 Uhr. Bezogen auf die vorhandene Liegefläche je Areal ergab sich lediglich eine 50%ige Maximalauslastung an gleichzeitig liegenden Pferden. Die Liegephasendauer variierte -unabhängig vom Areal- signifikant zwischen den Pferden (p=0,028) und darüber hinaus auch je Pferd (p<0,001). Die durchschnittliche Dauer pro Liegephase war mit 28,8 ± 0,5 (SEM) min signifikant länger in den Liegehallen (I, II und III), als im Unterstand mit 24,6 ± 0,9 min und auf dem Sandplatz mit 20,0 ± 1,9 min (p<0,001). Die mittlere tägliche Gesamtliegedauer eines Pferdes betrug 91 ± 2,7 min in den Liegehallen (I, II und III), 43 ± 2,3 min im Unterstand und 27 ± 2,9 min auf dem Sandplatz (p<0,001). In den Liegehallen legte sich ein Pferd im Mittel 3,2 Mal am Tag ab, im Unterstand lediglich 1,7 und auf dem Sandplatz 1,3 Mal (p<0,001). 79% der registrierten Liegephasen (n= 2410) fanden darüber hinaus in den Liegehallen (I, II und III) statt, was deren zentrale Bedeutung als Liegebereich hervorhebt. In der größeren Liegehalle I ruhten eine größere Anzahl an unterschiedlichen Pferden häufiger (p<0,0002) und länger (p<0,0005) pro Tag im Liegen als in den beiden etwas kleineren Liegehallen II und III. Die tägliche Gesamtliegedauer pro Pferd war mit aufgestütztem Kopf mit 54,8 ± 1,6 Minuten länger als ohne aufgestützten Kopf mit 45,2 ± 1,8 min. In Seitenlage wurde im Durchschnitt pro Tag und Pferd 27,5 ± 1,1 min geruht (p<0,001). Diese Ruheposition wurde in den Liegehallen signifikant häufiger eingenommen, als auf dem Sandplatz oder im Unterstand (p<0,001). Die tägliche mittlere Gesamtliegedauer pro Pferd auf Späne war mit 74,3 ± 2,9 min gegenüber 62,4 ± 2,3 min auf Gummimatten signifikant länger (p=0,005). Ebenso fanden in Relation zum Flächenangebot in den Liegehallen geringfügig mehr Liegephasen auf dem Späne-Bereich als auf den Gummimatten statt. Ebenfalls in Flächenrelation wurde der offen gestaltete Unterstand deutlich vor den anderen Arealen zum Ruhen im Liegen von den Pferden präferiert. Es sei deshalb auf die Bedeutung eines Unterstandes als zusätzliche Liegefläche in Offenlaufstallhaltung hingewiesen. Die meisten Liegephasen und auch die längsten täglichen Liegezeiten fanden in den warmen Monaten statt (p=0,013). Im Winter flachte das Ruhen im Liegen deutlich ab und verlagerte sich bei unter -10°C nahezu ausschließlich auf die Liegehallen (p=0,001). Der leichte Späne-Überzug und der positive Effekt der bereits integrierten und die Gummimatten zum Liegen nutzenden Pferde waren mögliche Gründe dafür, dass die Neuankömmlinge ohne Gummimatten-Vorerfahrung (n= 10 Pferde ≤ 6 Monate in der Anlage) kein vermindertes Liegeverhalten im Vergleich zur bestehenden Herde (n= 46 Pferde; mind. 1 bis max. 3 J. in der Anlage) aufwiesen. Die Rangordnung wurde mittels modifiziertem „Average Dominance Index“ berechnet. Die rangniederen Pferde hatten mit 2,6 gegenüber 3,4 und 3,1 sowohl signifikant weniger Liegephasen pro Pferd und Tag, als auch mit 69,3 ± 3,9 min eine um 22 min signifikant kürzere tägliche Gesamtliegedauer als die Ranghöheren (jeweils p<0,001). Rangniedrige Pferde ruhten in den Liegehallen weniger häufig (2,7 gegenüber 3,5 und 3,2 mittlere Anzahl Liegephasen/ Pferd/ Tag) und auch signifikant (p<0,001) kürzer je Tag (77,8 ± 5,0 min gegenüber 97,3 ± 3,9 min und 98,8 ± 5,1 min). Je jünger ein Pferd war, desto öfter (3,5 gegenüber 2,6 mittlere Anzahl Liegephasen/ Pferd/ Tag) und länger (103,7 ± 7,6 min gegenüber 56,1 ± 13,2 min) legte es sich am Tag nieder, und desto häufiger (90% der Liegephasen der 4 und 5 Jährigen gegenüber 39% und 70% der 16 bis 25 J.) nutzte es die Liegehallen zum Liegen (p<0,001). Das Stockmaß der Pferde und das Pferdegewicht zeigten keinen eindeutigen Einfluss auf das Liegeverhalten. Für den „Body Condition Score“ (Skala 1 bis 9) ergaben sich signifikante Unterschiede. Je höher der BCS der Pferde war, desto häufigere (p=0,0185) und längere Liegezeiten (p=0,007) wiesen sie auf. Der monatlich gemessenen Ammoniakgehalt sowie Luftgeschwindigkeit, Luftfeuchtigkeit und Temperatur entsprachen bei Einsatz von Gummimatten in den Liegehallen den Anforderungen des BMELV (2009) an ein tiergerechtes Stallklima. Voraussetzung hierfür ist jedoch eine ausreichende Luftzirkulation im Stallgebäude sowie eine gute Stallhygiene. Die Ergebnisse aus den vergleichenden Beobachtungen der unterschiedlichen Liegematerialien lassen schlussfolgern, dass die hier untersuchten verformbaren Gummimatten in Kombination mit minimaler Späneeinstreu in Offenlaufställen von der Mehrzahl der Pferde zum Ruhen im Liegen angenommen wurde und deshalb als weitgehend tiergerecht beurteilt werden können. [Being highly social animals, horses are housed most adequately in groups. Loose housing systems are said to be the most species adequate system of horse housing (BMELV, 2009). Recently rubber mats have increasingly been used instead of shavings as bedding in loose housing systems where the different functional areas are separated. Advantages of rubber mats are that they are less cost and labour intensive as shavings, and their use also reduces the bacterial and dust contamination of the environment. However, it has not yet been shown whether horses are capable of satisfying their recumbency needs on rubber mats as well as they can on shavings. This study looks to clarify this question, as well as to evaluate the hygienic conditions of the stabling climate in the areas equipped with sponge-filled rubber mats (HIT-Softbed® plus). The recumbency patterns of 56 horses kept in a loose housing system with separate functional areas were observed on 6 days per season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) using wide angle video cameras. The different areas were: three similar but different large halls meant as lying areas (in the middle rubber mats; in the periphery shavings), an unsheltered area with sand footing and a sheltered area with sand footing. The size of the three halls meant as lying areas (LH I 172 m², LH II and III each 143 m²) was adequate with the demands of the BMELV (2009). Confounding factors which could also affect recumbency behaviour, such as day time, season and weather were taken into account. The role of the horses rank was also investigated. The occurrence of disruptions during recumbency phases by other members of the herd was also found out. Horse specific factors such as age, height, weight and body condition score were also taken into account as these could also have an effect on recumbency patterns. On each day of observation, in average 35 different horses out of 56 horses (65%) were seen to be resting in a recumbent position. Hence many horses did not assume a recumbent position every night. Seventy-two percent of the recumbency phases occurred between 0 and 4 am. The capacity of the area for a lying position at one time offered the horses was only exploited to 50%. The length of the recumbency phase varied significantly between animals and for the individual animals over the duration of the observation period (p<0.001). The average recumbent time per lying phase was 28.8 ± 0.5 (SEM) minutes in the halls (I, II and III), 24.6 ± 0.9 min in the shelter and 20.0 ± 1.9 min on the sand area. The average time spent lying down per horse per day was 91 ± 2.7 min in the halls, 43 ± 2.3 min in the shelter and 27 ± 2.9 min on the sand area (p<0.001). The horses lay down an average of 3.2 times in the halls, 1.7 times in the shelter and 1.3 times in the sand area (p<0.001). Seventy-nine percent of the observed recumbency phases (n= 2410) were seen in the halls. This shows that along with the pastures, the halls played a central role in the recumbency patterns of the horses. When comparing the halls, a wider variety of horses was observed spending a longer time in recumbency (p<0.0005) more often (p<0.0002) in hall I than in the somewhat smaller halls II and III. The total time spent per day in recumbency with the head supported was 54.8 ± 1.6 min and hence was ten minutes longer than the total daily time spent in recumbency without the head supported with 45.2 ± 1.8 min. On average the horses spent 27.5 ± 1.1 min in lateral recumbency (p<0.001). Horses were observed to lie in lateral recumbency more often in the halls than on sand area or in the shelter (p<0.001). The daily total length of time spent in recumbency was found to be significantly longer on bedding (74.3 ± 2.9 min) versus on rubber mats (62.4 ± 2.3 min) (p=0.005). Even though the average number and length of recumbency periods per day and horse, as well as the average time spent in lateral recumbency was greater for the halls, when taking surface area into consideration, it was found that the sheltered area was used the most per surface area for resting in recumbency. Hence it is relevant to state the importance of a shelter as additional lying space in loose housing systems. The highest number of recumbency phases and the longest time spent daily lying down were seen in the mild months of the year (p=0.013). Temperatures below freezing led to decreased recumbency behavior. The horses observed lay down almost exclusively in the halls when temperature was below -10°C (p<0.001). The newcomers (n= 10 horses ≤ 6 months in the stable) to this housing system did not show a diminished recumbency behaviour compared to the other horses (n= 46 horses for 1 to 3 years in the stable). It is apparent that horses that do not have previous experience of rubber mats do not necessitate an adaptation period to use the mats to lay down on, as long as they are introduced into a group of horses that are already comfortable with the use of the mats. Likewise the shavings could help the horses adapt to the new material faster. The rank of the horse in the herd was determined using a modified “Average Dominance Index”. The horses of low rank showed a significantly lower number of recumbency phases (2.6 compared to 3.4 and 3.1 per horse per day), as well as with 69.3 ± 3.9 min a highly significant shorter by 22 minutes length of recumbency phase when compared to horses of higher rank (each p<0.001). With diminishing rank, the horses lay down less frequently in the halls (2.7 compared to 3.5 and 3.2 recumbency phases per horse per day) and the total daily time spent in recumbency (77.8 ± 5.0 min compared to 97.3 ± 3.9 min und 98.8 ± 5.1 min) diminished significantly (p<0.001). Younger horses were found to lie down more frequently (3.5 compared to 2.6 recumbency phases per horse per day) but also to spend significantly longer periods (103.7 ± 7.6 min compared to 56.1 ± 13.2 min) in recumbency (p<0.001). Younger horses also tended to (90% of recumbency phases of 4 and 5 year old compared to 39% and 70% of 16 until 25 year old) use the halls for recumbent periods of rest (p<0.001). Horse height and weight did not influence recumbency behavior clearly. An interesting correlation was however noted with “body condition score” (BCS). A scale from 1 to 9 was used. The higher the BCS, the more (p=0.0185) and longer (p=0.007) time the animal spent resting in recumbency. Air ammonia content, air velocity, ambient humidity and temperature measured monthly were within the recommendations of the BMELV (2009). Rubber mats are of no concern to hygiene when used as bedding in loose housing systems with segregated functional areas, as long as sufficient air circulation and proper stable hygiene are present. The results of the comparative observations of the various bedding materials lead us to conclude that the currently studied rubber mats in combination with a minimum amount of shaving are accepted by the majority of the horses and therefore are a widely species-appropriate bedding material for horses in loose housing systems.] |
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Obergfell, J. (2012). Einf lus s v on St ruktur e l ement en auf da s Li eg ev e rha l t en v on Pf e rden in Gruppenha l tung unt e r Be rücks i cht igung de s Ag g r e s s i ons v e rha l t ens. Ph.D. thesis, , Karlsruhe.
Abstract: Durch die vorliegende Studie wurde der Einfluss von Strukturelementen auf das Liege- und Aggressionsverhalten von Pferden in Gruppenhaltung untersucht. Die Strukturelemente sollten Rückzugsmöglichkeiten bieten, sowie in ihrem Bereich zur Aufhebung der Individualdistanz führen und dadurch die Fläche relativ vergrößern. Für die Versuche stellte das Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach drei unabhängige Pferdegruppen mit verschiedener Herdengröße zur Verfügung, die jeweils in Einraum- Innenlaufställen gehalten wurden. Die Datenerfassung fand zwischen 23 und sieben Uhr statt. Insgesamt wurden 366 Stunden Videomaterial ausgewertet. Beim Ruheverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling- Verfahrens die Parameter Gesamtliegedauer, Dauer in Seitenlage, Dauer der Einzelphasen in
Seitenlage und Abliegehäufigkeit pro Nacht erfasst. Es wurden Versuchsphasen ohne Strukturelemente und mit hängenden Planen als Strukturierung durchgeführt. Im ersten Stall kamen außerdem über einander gestapelte Strohballen zum Einsatz. Diese Art der Strukturierung stellte sich jedoch als nicht praktikabel heraus und führte im Vergleich zu den Planen zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung der Gesamtliegedauer. In Stall 1 konnte man eine tendenzielle Verbesserung der Parameter Gesamtliegedauer und Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage durch das Anbringen von Planen sehen. In Stall 3 dagegen verschlechterte sich das Ruheverhalten in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen gegenüber den Versuchsphasen ohne Struktur. Die Werte der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage nahmen signifikant ab. In Stall 2 zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Möglicherweise ist die Wirkung der Strukturelemente auf das Liegeverhalten abhängig von der Flächengröße. Stall 1 hatte bezogen auf die Leitlinien des BMELV die größte und Stall 3 die kleinste Fläche. Bei den anderen Parametern des Liegeverhaltens gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Mit Hilfe des time-sampling-Verfahrens wurde die Anzahl gleichzeitig liegender Pferde und gleichzeitig liegender Pferde in Seitenlage bestimmt. Auch hier zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Bei der Gegenüberstellung der Werte der Gesamtliegedauer und der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage mit dem Alter der Pferde (Stall 1 und Stall 3) und mit dem Integrationszeitpunkt (Stall 1) konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Beim Aggressionsverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling-Verfahrens in den Ställen 2 und 3 verschiedene Arten von Aggressionen erfasst, die dann in die drei Intensitätsgrade Low-Level-, Mid-Level- und High-Level- Aggressionen unterteilt wurden. Neben der Anzahl wurde die Dauer der verschiedenen Aggressionen bewertet. Insgesamt konnte eine positive Wirkung der Planen auf das Aggressionsverhalten beobachtet werden. Die Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen nahm in beiden Ställen tendenziell in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen ab. In Stall 3 konnte, wenn man die Aggressionen stundenweise betrachtet, ein signifikanter Unterschied festgestellt werden. Auch der Hinterhandschlag und die Aggressionen, welche das Ruheverhalten stören, verringerten sich tendenziell nach dem Anbringen von Strukturelementen. In beiden Ställen nahm die relative Häufigkeit von Mid-Level-Aggressionen nach dem Anbringen von Planen zu. Dagegen konnte bei den High-Level-Aggressionen und in Stall 3 bei den Low-Level- Aggressionen eine relative Abnahme beobachtet werden. Sowohl die Anzahl als auch die Dauer der Mid-Level-Aggressionen verringerten sich in Stall 3 stundenweise betrachtet signifikant in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen. In Stall 2 war bei den High-Level- Aggressionen sowohl bei der Dauer als auch bei der Anzahl eine signifikante Abnahme zu sehen. Wenn man das Aggressionsverhalten in Bezug zu der Fläche in den zwei Ställen betrachtet, schien diese vor allem einen Einfluss auf die High-Level-Aggressionen zu nehmen. Mit Hilfe des Rangindex der Pferde im Stall 3 wurde eine Rangordnung aufgestellt. Zwischen dem Platz der Pferde in der Rangordnung und den Parametern des Ruheverhaltens (Gesamtliegedauer, Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage) sowie dem Alter der Pferde konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Zwischen dem Rangindex und der Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen bestand dagegen ein hoch signifikanter Zusammenhang. Im Rahmen dieser Studie ist das Anbringen von Strukturelementen in Bezug auf das Aggressionsverhalten in Einraum-Innenlaufställen von Pferden zu empfehlen. Die Wirkung auf das Liegeverhalten der Pferde sollte in weiteren Studien untersucht werden. [In this study the influence of structural elements on lying and aggression behavior in horses kept in groups was exanimated. Structural elements should offer the possibility of retreat. Furthermore, within the respective area, the individual distance should be limited, thus increasing the overall space relatively. For the studies the “Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach” provided three non-related groups of different sized horses, each kept in separate “Einraum-Innenlaufställen”. Data collection took place between 11 pm and 7 am. Altogether, 366 hours of video material were analyzed. Using the event-sampling-method, the following parameters within the horses´ resting behavior were determined: The total lying period, the total lying period in lateral position, the periods of the single lying in lateral position and the frequency of lying down. Test phases were carried out without structural elements and with hanging canvases as structural elements. In the first stable there were also three bales of straw piled up on top of each other. This kind of structuring emerged as impractical and in comparison to the canvas, led to a significant deterioration to the total period of lying. After the canvases were fixed in the first stable, a slight improvement with the parameters of total lying period and total lying period in the lateral position could be seen. In contrast, the resting behavior in stable 3 worsened in the test phases with the canvases in comparison to the test phases without structural elements. The values for the total lying period in the lateral position decreased significantly. In stable 2, there were no differences in the different test phases. Possibly the effect of the structural elements is dependent of the space. Stable 1 had the largest space and stable 3 the least space referred to the guideline of the BMELV. The other parameters of the lying behavior showed no significant differences in the different test phases. The number of horses lying at the same time, and the number of horses lying at the same time in the lateral position were detected with the aid of the time-sampling-method. There were also no differences between the different test phases. If the values of the total lying period and the total lying period in lateral position were compared to the age of the horses (stable 1 and stable 3) and to the point of integration (stable 1), there was no correlation. Different kinds of aggression were detected by the means of the event-sampling-method in stable 2 and 3 and were subdivided into the three levels of intensity: Low-level-, mid-level and high-level-aggressions. Both the number and the duration of the different aggressions were evaluated. All in all a positive influence of the canvas on the aggression behavior could be observed. In both stables, the total number of aggressions decreased in the test phases with canvases. In stable 3 a significant difference could be detected, if the aggressions were observed per hour. Also hind limb kicks and aggressions disturbing the resting behavior, decreased by trend, after fixing the canvases in the stable. In both stables the relative frequency of mid-level-aggressions increased after the canvases were mounted. In contrast there was a relative decrease at the high-level-aggressions and in stable 3 at the low-levelaggressions. The number and the duration of the mid-level-aggressions in stable 3 decreased, when considered by the hour in the test phases with canvases. In stable 2 a significant decrease in duration and number of high-level-aggressions was observed. When examining aggression behavior in reference to space in the two stables, high-level-aggressions seemed to be mostly influenced. In stable 3 a rank order was established with the aid of the rank index of the horses. There was no correlation between the horses´ rank and the parameters of the resting behavior (the total lying period, the total lying period in lateral position) and between horses´ rank and age. In contrast, there was a high significant correlation between the rank index and the total number of aggressions. In context to this study, structural elements in “Einraum-Innenlaufställen” (BMELV 2009) seem to have a positive influence on the aggression behavior and thus seem to be recommendable. The influence on the lying behavior should be investigated in further studies.] |
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Ahrendt, L. P., Christensen, J. W., & Ladewig, J. (2012). The ability of horses to learn an instrumental task through social observation. In Applied Animal Behaviour Science (Vol. 139, pp. 105–113).
Abstract: The ability of horses to learn through social observation may ease the implementation of new management systems, because the use of automatic feeders etc. by naive horses could be facilitated by observation of experienced horses. However, previous studies found no documentation for observational learning abilities in horses. This study aimed to investigate the ability of horses to learn an instrumental task from a familiar conspecific when social interaction was allowed during the demonstration. Two similar experiments were performed. In the first experiment, Observer horses (n=11) participated in ten successive demonstrations, where a trained Demonstrator opened an operant device by pushing a sliding lid aside with the muzzle in order to obtain a food reward. Immediately after the demonstrations the Observer horses were given the opportunity to operate the device alone. Control horses (n=11) were aware that the device contained food but were presented to the operant device without demonstration of the task. The learning criterion was at least two openings. Accomplishment of and latency to accomplish the learning criterion, and investigative behaviour towards the operant device were recorded. Five Observers and one Control, out of the eleven horses in each treatment group, accomplished the learning criterion. Even though this presents a high odds ratio (OR) in favour of the Observer treatment (OR=7.6), there was no significant difference between the treatment groups (P=0.15). Analysis of investigative behaviour showed, however, that the demonstrations increased the motivation of the Observer horses to investigate the device. Subsequently, a similar experiment was performed in a practical setting with 44 test horses (mixed age, gender and breed). We used the same operant device and the same number and type of demonstrations, although the horses were held on a loose rope to minimise aggression. In this second experiment, six of 23 Observer horses and five of 21 Control horses learned the instrumental task, representing no influence of the demonstration. Thus, this study did not demonstrate an ability of horses to learn an instrumental task through observation.
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Palme, R. (2012). Monitoring stress hormone metabolites as a useful, non-invasive tool for welfare assessment in farm animals. Animal Welfare, 21(3), 331–337.
Abstract: A multitude of endocrine mechanisms are involved in coping with challenges. Glucocorticoids, secreted by the adrenal glands, are in the front line of the battle to overcome stressful situations. They are usually measured in plasma samples as parameters of adrenal activity and thus of disturbance. Unfortunately, collecting blood samples itself can disturb an animal. Thus, non-invasive methods for the determination of glucocorticoids or their metabolites have become increasingly popular. The pros and cons of various non-invasive sample materials (saliva, excreta, milk, hair/feathers and eggs) for glucocorticoid determination are given. Above all, faecal samples offer the
advantage that they can be collected easily. In faecal samples, circulating hormone levels are integrated over a certain period of time and represent the cumulative secretion of hormones. Thus, the levels are less affected by short fluctuations or the pulse-like nature of hormone secretion. However, using this technique to assess an animal’s adrenocortical activity is not especially simple. Whether frequent sampling is necessary or single samples will suffice depends upon the study’s aim (whether one is examining the impact of acute or chronic stressors). Background knowledge of the metabolism and excretion of cortisol/corticosterone metabolites is required and a careful validation for each species and sex investigated is obligatory. The present review also addresses analytical issues regarding sample storage, extraction procedures and immunoassays and includes a comprehensive list of published studies (up to 2011) describing the use of such methods in farmed animals. Applied properly, non-invasive techniques to monitor glucocorticoid metabolites in faecal samples of various species are a useful tool for welfare assessment, especially as they are easily applied at farm or group level. |