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Alexander, F., & Davies, M. E. (1969). Studies on vitamin B12 in the horse. Br. Vet. J., 125(4), 169–176.
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Clutton-Brock, T. H., Greenwood, P. J., & Powell, R. P. (1976). Ranks and relationships in Highland ponies and Highland Cows. Z. Tierpsychol., 41(2), 202–216.
Abstract: Recent studies of primates have questioned the importance of dominance hierarchies in groups living under natural conditions. In a herd of Highland ponies and one of Highland cattle grazing under free-range conditions on the Isle of Rhum (Inner Hebrides) well defined hierarchies were present. The provision of food produced a marked increase in the frequency of agonistic interactions but had no effect on the rank systems of the two herds. While rank was clearly important in affecting the distribution of agonistic interactions, it was poorly related to behaviour in non-agonistic situations.
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Craig, J. V. (1986). Measuring social behavior: social dominance. J. Anim Sci., 62(4), 1120–1129.
Abstract: Social dominance develops more slowly when young animals are kept in intact peer groups where they need not compete for resources. Learned generalizations may cause smaller and weaker animals to accept subordinate status readily when confronted with strangers that would be formidable opponents. Sexual hormones and sensitivity to them can influence the onset of aggression and status attained. After dominance orders are established, they tend to be stable in female groups but are less so in male groups. Psychological influences can affect dominance relationships when strangers meet and social alliances within groups may affect relative status of individuals. Whether status associated with agonistic behavior is correlated with control of space and scarce resources needs to be determined for each species and each kind of resource. When such correlations exists, competitive tests and agonistic behavior associated with gaining access to scarce resources can be useful to the observer in learning about dominance relationships rapidly. Examples are given to illustrate how estimates of social dominance can be readily attained and some strengths and weaknesses of the various methods.
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Beaver, B. V. (1981). Problems & values associated with dominance. Vet Med Small Anim Clin, 76(8), 1129–1131.
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Kiley, M. (1972). The vocalizations of ungulates, their causation and function. Z. Tierpsychol., 31(2), 171–222.
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Rybarczyk, P., Rushen, J., & de Passille, A. M. (2003). Recognition of people by dairy calves using colour of clothing. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 81(4), 307–319.
Abstract: We examined whether very young dairy calves are able to discriminate between two people, and whether they use the colour of clothing or other indices to do so. During the familiarisation phase, one person (the familiar rewarder), who always wore the same colour clothes, gave milk, spoke gently and patted the calves in their individual pen for 6 days each week. During the test phase, the calf had to make a choice in an Y-maze placed in front of the gate of its stall. When the calves chose the familiar rewarder, they received 200 ml of milk as reinforcement. When they made the incorrect choice, they received nothing and were returned to their stall. On each test day, the calves made eight choices. The criterion of success was that the calf made at least six correct choices in eight trials on each of two consecutive test days (P<0.021 by the binomial law). The first experiment was carried out with fourteen 1-week-old male and female Holstein calves to see if calves could approach a person, who changed position in the maze, in order to obtain a feed reward. The familiar rewarder wore the same clothes as during the period of familiarisation and was in one arm of the Y-maze. The other arm was empty and the position of the familiar rewarder in the maze was randomised. Eleven of the 14 calves reached the criterion for success, after only three tests. The second experiment, carried out with five 2-week-old calves, examined whether the calves can differentiate the familiar rewarder (wearing the same clothing as during the period of familiarisation) from another person (the non-rewarder) wearing clothes of a different colour. The criterion of success was reached by all five calves. The third experiment was carried out with seven 2-week-old calves. It examined whether the calves can differentiate the familiar rewarder and the non-rewarder, when the two people are wearing clothes of the same colour (i.e. the same colour worn by the familiar rewarder during the phase of familiarisation). None of the calves were able to reach the criterion of success within a limited number of four test days. Often, calves would always choose the same arm of the maze. The fourth experiment was carried out on six 1-month-old calves. It was similar to experiment 3 with the difference that the familiar rewarder and the non-rewarder both wore the same colour clothes, but which were not the same colour as worn during the phase of familiarisation. Only one calf achieved the criterion of success within two test days. Results demonstrated that colour cues help very young calves to discriminate between two people, when these people wear different colour clothing. Some calves may be able to use other indicators than the colour of clothing. The Y-maze method is an promising way of examining calves' abilities to recognise people.
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Chenoweth, P. J., Chase, C. C., Larsen, R. E., Thatcher, M. - J. D., Bivens, J. F., & Wilcox, C. J. (1996). The assessment of sexual performance in young Bos taurus and Bos indicus beef bulls. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 48(3-4), 225–235.
Abstract: Yearling beef bulls, representing different Bos indicus and Bos taurus breeds, were given two sexual performance assessments (libido score, number of services, time to first mount and time of sexual inactivity) at four test periods (January, April, July and October) in 1991 (Trial 1) and 1992 (Trial 2) at the Subtropical Agricultural Research Station, Brooksville, Florida. Breed and test period, as well as their interactions, influenced most results. Sexual performance assessments generally improved with age in Bos taurus breeds, but not in Bos indicus. The temperate Bos taurus breeds (Angus and Hereford) were most sexually active, the tropically adapted Bos taurus breeds (Senepol and Romosinuano) intermediate and the two Bos indicus breeds (Brahman and Nellore x Brahman) were least active. Service rates were generally low. Seasonal patterns in sexual performance were not apparent, with breed and year differences occurring. Although breeds showed consistent test results, the failure of Bos indicus bulls to service in any test, indicates either sexual immaturity, or inadequate procedures for assessment of sexual performance in this breed group.
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