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Brennan, J., & Anderson, J. (1988). Varying responses to feeding competition in a group of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Primates, 29(3), 353–360.
Abstract: The behaviour of members of a group of rhesus monkeys was observed in experimentally created, competitive feeding situations. Socially dominant members of the group tended to start eating before lower-ranking subjects, and generally ate more. Dominants sometimes used aggression to control access to food, but overall, intermediate-ranking monkeys were involved in most agonistic episodes. Non-dominant subjects improved their feeding performance when food was presented in three piles rather than one pile, often by snatching food and consuming it away from the pile. These general patterns were less evident when realistic snake models were placed on some of the food piles. Feeding was disrupted by the presence of snakes, but notably, subordinates risked feeding in these conditions. Piles containing preferred foods and snakes were eaten from, but a low-preference food (carrot) under snakes went untouched by all subjects. The results suggest that group-members evaluate potential risks and benefits of competing for a restricted resource, and that dominance status, while an important factor, is only one element in the equation.
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Lloyd, A. S., Martin, J. E., Bornett-Gauci, H. L. I., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2007). Evaluation of a novel method of horse personality assessment: Rater-agreement and links to behaviour. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 105(1-3), 205–222.
Abstract: The efficacy of questionnaire-based personality assessment has been shown in a variety of animal and human personality studies. There has been a recent increase in questionnaire-based studies focussing on equine personality but with a lack of comparability to studies on other species. The aim of this study was to test the reliability of an assessment method originally developed for primates and demonstrate reliability using three criteria (1) assessments by independent observers must agree with one another, (2) these assessments must predict behaviours and real-world outcomes and (3) observer ratings must be shown to reflect genuine attributes of the individuals rated, not merely the observer's implicit personality theories about how traits co-vary. The personality of 61 horses (Equus caballus) was assessed using a questionnaire constructed of 30 behaviourally defined adjectives (BDAs). Horses were each assessed by three judges, in addition to a total of 2 h behaviour observations recorded per horse. Rater agreement was demonstrated for 72.1% of the horses and 25 of the BDAs. Principal component analysis was carried out on the rating data and revealed six underlying personality components that were labelled “dominance”, “anxiousness”, “excitability”, “protection”, “sociability” and “inquisitiveness”. Component scores for horses were correlated against behavioural observations for the same horses and revealed significant correlations with 20 of the recorded behaviour variables. Correlations between specific components and their associated behaviours were logical and consistent with the types of behaviours that would be expected to be linked with such personality types. The data were shown to meet all three criteria and provided strong evidence that the assessment method was reliably measuring horse personality.
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Henderson, J. V., & Warant, N. K. (2001). Reducing Equine Stereotypies Using an Equiball. Anim Welfare, 10(1), 73–80.
Abstract: It is believed that environmental enrichment techniques can play an important part in creating suitable captive environments for horses. There has, however, been little scientific investigation into the effectiveness of 'stable-toys' which claim to reduce the performance of equine stereotypies. This study investigated the effect of a foraging device known as 'The Equiball' on equine stereotypies. Six horses were given their evening feed in an Equiball, and the occurence of stereotypic behaviour recorded using scan sampling of video observations. Pre-enrichment, horses spent a mean(SD) of 5.27 ? 8.17 per cent of their time in the stable performing stereotypies; and significant individual variation in mean time performing stereotypic behaviour was found (P < 0.05). Several peaks in stereotypy over the day were found, the two main ones corresponding to the times before feeding. A reduction in stereotypic behaviour in five horses, and a small increase in stereotypic behaviour in one horse was observed during enrichment. During enrichment, there was an overall trend for stereotypic behaviour to decrease (P < 0.1). When used in conjunction with other measures such as behaviour therapy, companionship, increased exercise, and so on, the Equiball may help to create an environment less likely to lead to the development of stereotypic behaviours.
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Stachurska, A., Pieta, M., & Nesteruk, E. (2002). Which obstacles are most problematic for jumping horses? Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 77(3), 197–207.
Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine the behaviour of horses jumping over variously designed obstacles, i.e. which obstacles are easy for them and jumped willingly or which cause difficulties. This was judged by scoring two main faults at jumping events: the number of knock-downs and run-outs with refusals. The data concerned 609 rounds made at regional competitions of various classes for 100-140 cm obstacle height. They included 5639 jumps at 343 obstacles, in total. Seventy-two horses participated in the competitions. The number of faults at a particular obstacle depended on the obstacle-type, height, colour and arrangement. Uprights and oxers were the most frequently knocked-down, while the walls were the most often run-out. When the height was increased, more obstacles were knocked-down but the number of run-outs did not change significantly. The obstacles of two contrasting colours were jumped without fault more often, whereas, those of one colour, light or dark, caused most of the faults. The least number of faults was committed at the second obstacle in a combination compared with the first, third and single ones. The third and fourth obstacles in the courses were faulty jumps most often. The results suggest that most of the factors examined, which differentiate the obstacle and course design, may influence the horse's behaviour. In consequence, the horses make more or fewer faults jumping over various obstacles.
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Falewee, C., Gaultier, E., Lafont, C., Bougrat, L., & Pageat, P. (2006). Effect of a synthetic equine maternal pheromone during a controlled fear-eliciting situation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 101(1-2), 144–153.
Abstract: Horses are known to show fear reactions when confronted with novelty and this can be a considerable hindrance in the context of working situations such as riding, dressage or racing. The aim of the present study was to measure the potential effects of a synthetic analogue of the Equine Appeasing Pheromone on saddled horses when subjected to a stressful situation using a double-blinded, placebo controlled study design. A group of 40 horses was analyzed during this study and horses were divided by sex, breed and reactivity into two homogenized groups. The test, which consisted of walking the horse through a fringed curtain, was selected from a range of tests which are used to assess behaviour for the selection of French breeding stock. Horses that could have been subjected to the test on a previous occasion, and therefore be familiar with it, were not included. Behavioural and physiological parameters were both taken into account with measures of time to go through the curtain, fear related typical behavioural patterns, based on available literature detailed in the bibliography, and heart rate being recorded. Parameters were analyzed by means of Mann-Whitney U-test. Significant differences were noticed between the two groups concerning heart rate data during the test (UMeanHR = 100.5, pMeanHR = 0.02; UMaxHR = 75, pMaxHR = 0.001) and during the whole measured period (UMeanHR = 67, pMeanHR = 0.005; UMaxHR = 58, pMaxHR = 0.002). Observation of the animals also revealed less behavioural items characteristic of fear within the treated group. As a result, horses performed the test with a better time performance when they received the pheromone analogue (U = 62, p = 0.002). The main parameter, area under the HR graph, is based on heart rate measure and performance. Differences noticed (U = 74, p = 0.002) for this parameter lead to the conclusion that horses who received EAP underwent less stress related consequences in terms of their cardiac physiology. As horses are subjected to a number of foreseeable stressful events this study suggests that the use of Equine Appeasing Pheromone could be a significant factor in improving the welfare of this species.
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