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Briand Petersen, J. C. (1972). An identification system for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray). E. Afr. Wildl. J., 10, 59–63.
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Nuñez, C. M. V., Adelman, J. S., Smith, J., Gesquiere, L. R., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2014). Linking social environment and stress physiology in feral mares (Equus caballus): Group transfers elevate fecal cortisol levels. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 196, 26–33.
Abstract: Abstract Feral horses (Equus caballus) have a complex social structure, the stability of which is important to their overall health. Behavioral and demographic research has shown that decreases in group (or band) stability reduce female fitness, but the potential effects on the physiological stress response have not been demonstrated. To fully understand how band stability affects group-member fitness, we need to understand not only behavioral and demographic, but also physiological consequences of decreases to that stability. We studied group changes in feral mares (an activity that induces instability, including both male and female aggression) on Shackleford Banks, NC. We found that mares in the midst of changing groups exhibit increased fecal cortisol levels. In addition, mares making more group transfers show higher levels of cortisol two weeks post-behavior. These results offer insights into how social instability is integrated into an animal’s physiological phenotype. In addition, our results have important implications for feral horse management. On Shackleford Banks, mares contracepted with porcine zona pellucida (PZP) make approximately 10 times as many group changes as do untreated mares. Such animals may therefore be at higher risk of chronic stress. These results support the growing consensus that links between behavior and physiological stress must be taken into account when managing for healthy, functional populations.
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Hall, C., Crowell-Davis, S. L., & Warren, R. J. (1993). Maternal and developmental behavior of the feral horses of Cumberland Island, Georgia. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 37(1), 85.
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Crowell-Davis, S. L., Houpt, K. A., & Carini, C. M. (1986). Mutual grooming and nearest-neighbor relationships among foals of Equus caballus. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 15(2), 113–123.
Abstract: A 3-year study was carried out on the developmental behavior of foals from birth to 24 weeks of age and the behavior of mares living with foals. Mutual-grooming partners of foals were primarily other foals. The peak frequency of mutual grooming occurred during Weeks 9-12, when fillies mutual-groomed 1.6 times h-1 and colts mutual-groomed 0.9 times h-1. Fillies mutual-groomed more frequently than colts (P < 0.025). Fillies mutual-groomed randomly with colts and other fillies (P < 0.05), whereas colts mutual-groomed almost exclusively with fillies (P = 0.03). At all ages studied, if a foal's nearest neighbor was not its mother, it was more likely to be another foal than would be expected if the foal was associating randomly with non-mother ponies. Fillies were more likely than expected to have a filly rather than a colt as their nearest neighbor (P = 0.01). Thus, during their first few months of life, the foals studied exhibited patterns of behavior which were consistent with the development of the usual social milieu of unmanaged adults, in which several mares form a cohesive herd with one or more stallions associating with them.
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Cunningham, C., & Berger, J. (1986). Wild horses of the Granite Range. Natural History, , 32–39.
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Feh, C., Enchbold, S., & Munchtuya, B. (1996). Preliminary assessment of the Gurvan Saikhan National Conservation Park's potential for Gobi khulan (Equus hemionus luteus). GTZ, .
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Feh, C., Munkhtuya, B., Enkhbold, S., & Sukhbaatar, T. (2001). Ecology and social structure of the Gobi khulan Equus hemionus subsp. in the Gobi B National Park, Mongolia. Biol. Conserva., 101(1), 51–61.
Abstract: The status of the Gobi khulan Equus hemionus subsp. is recorded as “insufficiently known” in the Species Survival Commission's Equid Action Plan. Recent counts confirm that Mongolia holds the most important population of the whole species. Since 1953, the animals have benefited from a protected status, but this is now challenged. A 5-year study in the B part of the Gobi National Park on one subpopulation showed that it has remained stable over the past 15 years with an adequate mean reproductive rate of 15% and a 50% survival rate over the first year. Age/sex related mortality and prey analysis indicate that wolf predation probably has some impact on the population, in particular for 4-6-year-olds of both sexes at the start of reproduction. Desert and mountain steppes are the khulan's year-round preferred habitat, but `oases', play an important role at the beginning of lactation. Anthropogenic factors affect both home range and habitat use through direct intervention or permanent occupation of the scarce water sources. Khulans of this subpopulation, unlike other Asian and African wild asses, form year-round stable, non-territorial families. These families and all-male groups join together into “bands” in winter, and herds of several hundred animals, where reproductive rate is highest, form throughout the year. The existence of such herds may thus be critical for the breeding success of the population. Our study provides the first detailed quantitative data for this subspecies, which will help to monitor changes in the future.
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Gosling, L. M., & Roberts, S. C. (2001). Testing ideas about the function of scent marks in territories from spatial patterns. Anim. Behav., 62(3), F7–F10.
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Kolter, L., Schach, C., & Weber, T. (1999). Habitat use of feral and Przewalski's horses. Natur- und Kulturlandschaft, 3(332-342).
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Kruger, K., Gaillard, C., Stranzinger, G., & Rieder, S. (2005). Phylogenetic analysis and species allocation of individual equids using microsatellite data. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 122(s1), 78–86.
Abstract: Summary The taxonomic status of all equid species is not completely unravelled. This is of practical relevance for conservation initiatives of endangered, fragmented equid populations, such as the Asiatic wild asses (in particular Equus hemionus onager and E. hemionus kulan). In this study, a marker panel consisting of 31 microsatellite loci was used to assess species demarcation and phylogeny, as well as allocation of individuals (n = 120) to specific populations of origin (n = 11). Phylogenetic analysis revealed coalescence times comparable with those previously published from fossil records and mtDNA data. Using Bayesian approaches, it was possible to distinguish between the studied equids, although individual assignment levels varied. The observed results support the maintenance of separate captive conservation herds for E. hemionus onager and E. hemionus kulan. The first molecular genetic results for E. hemionus luteus remained contradictory, as they unexpectedly indicated a closer genetic relationship between E. hemionus luteus and E. kiang holderi compared with the other hemiones.
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