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Author  |
Wasilewski A. | ||||
| Title | 'Friendship' in ungulates? – Sociopositive relationships between non-related herd members of the same species | Type | Manuscript | ||
| Year | 2003 | Publication | Abbreviated Journal | ||
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| Abstract | http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~z-phylog/wisstaff/wasi-sum.htm Summary * The quantitative study presented here demonstrates and verifies for ungulates the existence of social bonds, which in humans are termed 'friendships'. Whereas 'friendships' in non-human primates have become increasingly accepted over the past 30 years, their existence in non-primates remained as yet to be proved. * The investigation was conducted on ungulates, because like primates the majority of their species are highly social; at the same time they are phylogenetically distant to the primates. To date, research into the social behaviour of ungulates in general, and of domestic species in particular, focuses predominantly on agonistic (socionegative) components, such as conflicts and resulting dominance hierarchies; sociopositive behaviours have been largely neglected. As a consequence, previous evidence in favour of 'friendships' among ungulates remained largely anecdotal. Studies explicitly investigating sociopositive relationships among herd members are rare and typically confound bonds based on 'friendships' with reproductive relationships (kinship and sexually motivated bonds). * Of each of the two large ungulate orders two species were investigated: horses and donkeys (Perissodactyla, Equidae) and sheep and cattle (Artiodactyla, Bovidae). The comparative, individual-based (and hence highly discriminative) longitudinal approach addressed all three levels of social organisation: associations, interactions and bond patterns within social units. Due to its systematic, quantitative, individual-based and comparatively broad design, this work may be considered to some degree a 'pioneering study'. As a consequence, a substantial amount of time and effort was required, particularly with respect to developing methods for the collection and analysis of data. * Two reasons led to conducting this study on domestic ungulates: For farm animals information about who is related to whom is usually readily available, facilitating discrimination between friendship and kinship. Furthermore, successful proof of 'friendships' among ungulates would imply practical consequences for animal husbandry, since a social environment accommodating the animals' psychosocial needs is an essential prerequisite for their well-being (ethical reasons for animal protection) and ultimately results in higher productivity and hence economic efficiency (anthropocentric reasons for animal protection). * Field research was conducted in England. Cattle and sheep were studied under commercial husbandry conditions, whereas appropriately large herds of horses and donkeys could only be found at a sanctuary. * Two to three herds of each of the four species, namely cattle, sheep, donkeys and horses, comprising 11 to 60 members (average herd size approx. 25) were studied in two consecutive years (1996: 36 weeks, 1997: 28 weeks). The herds of cattle mainly consisted of subadult females, whereas those of the other species were predominantly composed of adults. Equids were kept in mixed-sex herds of mares and geldings (castrated males); the bachelor flocks of sheep consisted of 'intact' males (rams). The data presented here are based on 234 individuals and approximately 1500 hours of observation. * Since even human social psychology provides neither a consistent definition nor a universally applicable terminology, it was necessary to establish a generally valid, precise definition of 'friendship'. Care was taken to exclude characteristics containing a bias as to the function of friendships (criteria were limited to those regarding contents and form). The definition contains all relevant criteria including those necessary for discrimination against alternative sociopositive relationships. Friendship is defined as a voluntary, reciprocal, non-reproductive bond between individuals. It is primarily dyadic and carries a subjective value to both participants. Friendship is characterised by positive affect ('affection') and is expressed in a consistent inter-individual preference. This definition is applicable to social relationships among both human and non-human animals, as well as interspecific relationships. * Two types of parameters were used as indicators of 'friendship': frequency of spatial proximity (nearest neighbours; consistent neighbour preferences as a reflection of associations) and frequencies of different spontaneous as well as experimentally induced sociopositive interactions. For different reasons, of the four kinds of interactions (social grooming s.l., resting in physical contact, sharing limited feed, documenting behaviours s.l.) only grooming and feed sharing proved reliable. * Aspects of the animals' spontaneous behaviour were recorded for all herds and in both years, whereas husbandry conditions demanded that complementary experiments be restricted to a few selected herds only. Data were collected using different Sampling and Recording Techniques, which were usually combined for maximum efficiency (e.g. Scan Sampling with nearest neighbour data, Ad libitum Sampling and Continuous Recording with sociopositive interactions). * Data were subjected to an extensive statistical analysis. In addition to commonly used uni- and bivariate methods (Binomial and Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Tests, bivariate Correlations and Mantel Tests) a number of multivariate statistics were applied (Multidimensional Scaling, hierarchical Cluster Analysis, partial Correlations and multiple Mantel-Tests). Dyadic data are best represented as matrices; matrix data, however, pose the difficulty of partial interdependence, requiring Randomisation Tests (such as the one developed by Mantel) for their analysis. The complexity and amount of neighbour data required the development and optimisation of a 'customised' evaluation software (NENESYS = NEarest NEighbour SYstematic Standardisation programme) in close interdisciplinary cooperation with computer scientists and mathematicians. * Seven different aspects of 'ungulate friendships' were addressed. The presented results differ in extent and depth. 1. Demonstration and verification of friendships in ungulates 2. Quantification of inter-individual preferences 3. Situation-specific aspects of these preferences 4. Dynamics and duration of friendships 5. Asymmetry within the relationships 6. Conditions enhancing friendships 7. Functions of animal friendships * All four species expressed distinct inter-individual ('personal') preferences both for certain neighbours and for specific partners for sociopositive interactions. Endeavouring to present conservative and hence reliable assessments, only those neighbour preferences exceeding a threshold criterion were considered as associations. As the set-up of the study ensured that these associations met the criteria outlined in the definition of 'friendship' by excluding alternative bases for bonds (such as kinship and sexual motivation = reproductive relationships), the first explicit attempt at verifying the existence of friendship can be considered successful for all four species of ungulates examined. As a consequence, the concept of 'friendship' needs to be extended beyond the order of primates. * Due to methodological reasons, the frequencies of interactions are only semi-quantitative and hence can be compared within herds only. Frequencies of spatial proximity, on the other hand, provide a fully quantitative indicator, enabling direct comparisons across species, between different herds of the same species and between individuals. Due to the 'spatial limitations' of this thesis, it mainly focuses on inter-species comparisons. With the exception of donkeys, the species could be arranged in sequence of increasing values of three parameters characterising their associative structure: maximum strength of association, maximum group size and proportion of herd members associated in distinct groups. Cattle showed the lowest values in all three parameters, sheep were intermediate, and horses reached the highest values. In these three species the strength of their associations was positively related to group size and the proportion of individuals associated in distinct groups. The donkeys did not fit this pattern: On the one hand, their association pattern comprised the lowest proportion of associated members and the smallest groups (pairs); on the other hand, these pairs exhibited very strong associations. * Comparing inter-individual preferences across up to four different situations clear interspecific differences became evident. Some of these were greater between species of the same order than between orders. The comparison of structures of association during grazing to those during resting, revealed two distinct patterns: Herds of horses and sheep flocks divided themselves into separate, usually mutually exclusive and independent groups and their associations corresponded greatly in both situations. Donkeys and cattle, on the other hand, formed diffuse, incomplete associative networks. The proportion of associations corresponding in both situations was far lower than in horses and sheep. In all four species frequencies of social grooming s.l. (sheep are generally believed not to engage in social grooming, but see below) were compared to proximity frequencies during grazing and resting; and additionally to frequencies of feed sharing in the equid species. Whereas horses restricted their sociopositive interactions entirely (grooming) or mostly (feed sharing) to members of their own group, cattle showed very little if any correspondence between partner preferences when grazing, resting and grooming. Donkeys spread their preferences widely across herd members, 'typically' approaching individuals for grooming with whom they were not associated during either grazing or resting. Considering their patterns of feed sharing, two different types of behaviour became evident: Pairs of donkeys that were closely associated during both grazing and resting, preferentially shared feed between them, whereas the remaining herd members did not discriminate between associates and non-associates when sharing feed. For sheep the findings of this study substantially increased the likelihood that unidirectional head rubbing and reciprocal cheek-to-cheek contact serve to strengthen 'personal' bonds and reduce tension – two functions generally attributed to social grooming. Both behaviours occurred mostly, but not exclusively, within groups of associated animals; these associations corresponded largely during grazing and resting. * Results indicate that different types of social interactions and associations during different activities, respectively, may be particularly suited to initiate, consolidate and intensify friendships and occur particularly frequently during different phases of friendship formation and development. In horses, for instance, social grooming appears to some extent to be associated with the initiation of bonds, whereas resting in close proximity seems to strengthen newly formed relationships. The longitudinal character of the study permitted to trace existing bonds over a maximum of 18 months. The duration of bonds in horses and sheep was comparable to findings of other authors for herds whose social networks resulted from a mixture of bonds based on both friendship and kinship; cattle relationships lasted shorter than described in the literature, while those in donkeys turned out to be approximately twice as long as had been documented to date. * Aspects of asymmetry within dyadic relationships become particularly evident in grooming behaviours in bovids, which are typically performed unilaterally (social licking in cattle and head rubbing in sheep). Both behaviours can occur either spontaneously or as a consequence of solicitation. * Addressing the question of factors potentially encouraging friendships, relationships between the degree of similarity with respect to some physical characteristics and nearest neighbour frequencies were found to be statistically significant. Cattle of similar age associated more closely, and horned rams preferred other individuals with horns as neighbours. The widely accepted preference of horses for associates of similar coat colour (and height) was not verified. It remains to be decided whether (in addition to this preference for similar individuals) a preference based on complementary characteristics does exist. * Following a critical review of the methodology employed, the benefits ungulates derive from friendships and possible applications for animal husbandry are discussed. Very little convincing evidence of a (direct) concrete, practical benefit was found. A psychological benefit in the form of social / emotional support, on the opposite, became highly probable. Anecdotal evidence indicates, that situations causing a state of anxiety, may favour the initiation and intensification of friendships. Moreover, the study was able to statistically prove connection between (roughly) simultaneous introduction to a new herd (novel social environment) and persisting associations (as an indicator of friendships) in horses and sheep. These findings suggest that ungulate friendships provide a feeling of security. Social / emotional support among friends is predominantly given in a passive manner, e.g. in the form of – both literally and metaphorically – standing by a friend during conflicts with a third party, followed by social grooming with the friend. Social grooming has been shown by other authors to reduce physiological symptoms of stress. In addition, external signs of relaxation indicate a decrease in psychological tension. Hence, psychological support enhances the animal's physical health (and ultimately increases its biological fitness), providing an indirect practical benefit. * Since all larger species of farm animals are highly social ungulates, the demonstration and verification of friendships implies consequences for husbandry practice. Intensive husbandry conditions are characterised by high animal densities, resulting in increased social stress, and grouping of animals of similar ages, which interferes with or prevents the formation and maintenance of bonds between kin. As friendships develop preferentially between individuals of similar age, they can be accommodated with relatively little effort when deciding about regrouping. The study presented here provides explicit recommendations to interested stockpersons on how to expeditiously and efficiently identify existing friendships and on which aspects to take into account when regrouping established herds or introducing new members. * The different aspects of the study and their complex and often interwoven interrelations are condensed into a 'Regelkreismodell'. This model facilitates the generation of precise hypotheses for future research. Further detailed investigation into a variety of questions raised by this study seems in many ways promising and rewarding. * The successful demonstration and verification of the existence of friendship in ungulates requires an extension of the 'concept of friendship' beyond the order of primates and encourages more detailed research into the bonding behaviour of other social vertebrates (e.g. elephants, dolphins, carnivores and also parrots). * This extension demands a reinterpretation of some behaviours which so far have been unsatisfactorily or controversially classified, such as social head or horn rubbing in sheep, which has been mentioned occasionally, but received very little attention in the literature. Due to its occurrence during aggressive interactions, some authors consider horn or head rubbing to be agonistic. Others suppose the preorbital gland to play a significant role in this type of interaction and interpret head or horn rubbing as a 'respectful gesture' (adopting the dominant sheep's individual scent). The study presents the first description of cheek-to-cheek contact in sheep. These cheek contacts are unequivocally sociopositive in nature. Since they are frequently associated with head rubbing, a third interpretation of head rubbing behaviour is offered by classifying both behaviours within the context of social grooming s.l.. More detailed examinations of these behaviours will be conducted as part of a research project into the evolution of the bovidae. |
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| Corporate Author | Thesis | Ph.D. thesis | |||
| Publisher | University of Marburg | Place of Publication | Marburg | Editor | |
| Language | German | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| Notes | Approved | no | |||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 824 | ||
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| Author |
Washino, R.K.; Tempelis, C.H. | ||||
| Title | Host-feeding patterns of Anopheles freeborni in the Sacramento Valley, California | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 1967 | Publication | Journal of Medical Entomology | Abbreviated Journal | J Med Entomol |
| Volume | 4 | Issue | 3 | Pages | 311-314 |
| Keywords | Animals; Anopheles/*growth & development; California; Cats; Cattle; Dogs; Ecology; Horses; Humans; *Insect Vectors; Rabbits; Rodentia; Swine | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 0022-2585 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:6052143 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 2745 | ||
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| Author |
Washburn, D.A.; Smith, J.D.; Shields, W.E. | ||||
| Title | Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) immediately generalize the uncertain response | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2006 | Publication | Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes | Abbreviated Journal | J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process |
| Volume | 32 | Issue | 2 | Pages | 185-189 |
| Keywords | Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; *Cognition; *Discrimination Learning; *Generalization (Psychology); Macaca mulatta/*psychology; Male; *Uncertainty | ||||
| Abstract | Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) have learned, like humans, to use an uncertain response adaptively under test conditions that create uncertainty, suggesting a metacognitive process by which human and nonhuman primates may monitor their confidence and alter their behavior accordingly. In this study, 4 rhesus monkeys generalized their use of the uncertain response, without additional training, to 2 familiar tasks (2-choice discrimination learning and mirror-image matching to sample) that predictably and demonstrably produce uncertainty. The monkeys were significantly less likely to use the uncertain response on trials in which the answer might be known. These results indicate that monkeys, like humans, know when they do not know and that they can learn to use a symbol as a generalized means for indicating their uncertainty. | ||||
| Address | Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, 30303, USA. dwashhburn@gsu.edu | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 0097-7403 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:16634662 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 2760 | ||
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Washburn, D.A.; Astur, R.S. | ||||
| Title | Exploration of virtual mazes by rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2003 | Publication | Animal Cognition | Abbreviated Journal | Anim. Cogn. |
| Volume | 6 | Issue | 3 | Pages | 161-168 |
| Keywords | Animals; Choice Behavior/*physiology; Computer Peripherals; Macaca mulatta/*physiology; Male; Maze Learning/*physiology; Space Perception/*physiology; User-Computer Interface | ||||
| Abstract | A chasm divides the huge corpus of maze studies found in the literature, with animals tested in mazes on the one side and humans tested with mazes on the other. Advances in technology and software have made possible the production and use of virtual mazes, which allow humans to navigate computerized environments and thus for humans and nonhuman animals to be tested in comparable spatial domains. In the present experiment, this comparability is extended even further by examining whether rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) can learn to explore virtual mazes. Four male macaques were trained to manipulate a joystick so as to move through a virtual environment and to locate a computer-generated target. The animals succeeded in learning this task, and located the target even when it was located in novel alleys. The search pattern within the maze for these animals resembled the pattern of maze navigation observed for monkeys that were tested on more traditional two-dimensional computerized mazes. | ||||
| Address | Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA. dwashburn@gsu.edu | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 1435-9448 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:12750961 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 2569 | ||
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| Author |
Wascher, C.A.F.; Fraser, O.N.; Kotrschal, K. | ||||
| Title | Heart Rate during Conflicts Predicts Post-Conflict Stress-Related Behavior in Greylag Geese | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2010 | Publication | PLoS ONE | Abbreviated Journal | PLoS ONE |
| Volume | 5 | Issue | 12 | Pages | e15751 |
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| Abstract | Background Social stressors are known to be among the most potent stressors in group-living animals. This is not only manifested in individual physiology (heart rate, glucocorticoids), but also in how individuals behave directly after a conflict. Certain ‘stress-related behaviors’ such as autopreening, body shaking, scratching and vigilance have been suggested to indicate an individual's emotional state. Such behaviors may also alleviate stress, but the behavioral context and physiological basis of those behaviors is still poorly understood. Methodology/Principal Findings We recorded beat-to-beat heart rates (HR) of 22 greylag geese in response to agonistic encounters using fully implanted sensor-transmitter packages. Additionally, for 143 major events we analyzed the behavior shown by our focal animals in the first two minutes after an interaction. Our results show that the HR during encounters and characteristics of the interaction predicted the frequency and duration of behaviors shown after a conflict. Conclusions/Significance To our knowledge this is the first study to quantify the physiological and behavioral responses to single agonistic encounters and to link this to post conflict behavior. Our results demonstrate that ‘stress-related behaviors’ are flexibly modulated by the characteristics of the preceding aggressive interaction and reflect the individual's emotional strain, which is linked to autonomic arousal. We found no support for the stress-alleviating hypothesis, but we propose that stress-related behaviors may play a role in communication with other group members, particularly with pair-partners. |
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| Publisher | Public Library of Science | Place of Publication | Editor | ||
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| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 5298 | ||
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Warren-Smith, A.K.; McGreevy, P.D. | ||||
| Title | Preliminary investigations into the ethological relevance of round-pen (round-yard) training of horses | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2008 | Publication | Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science | Abbreviated Journal | |
| Volume | 11 | Issue | 3 | Pages | 285-298 |
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| Abstract | Recently, training horses within round-pens has increased in popularity. Practitioners often maintain that the responses they elicit from horses are similar to signals used with senior conspecifics. To audit the responses of horses to conspecifics, 6 mare-young-horse dyads, this study introduced them to each other in a round-pen and videoed them for 8 min. These dyads spent significantly more time farther than 10 m apart than they did less than 1 m apart (p < .001). The time they spent less than 1 m apart decreased over the 8-min test period (p = .018). Mares occupied the center of the round-pen and chased youngsters for 0.73% of the test period (p < .001). Mares made all agonistic approaches (p < .001), and youngsters (p = .018) made all investigative approaches. Head lowering and licking-and-chewing were exhibited most when the youngsters were facing away from the mares (p < .001). The frequency of head lowering increased during the test period (p = .027), whereas the frequency of licking-and-chewing did not change. The results bring into question the popular interpretation and ethological relevance of equine responses commonly described in round-pen training and show that mares did not condition young horses to remain in close proximity to them. | ||||
| Address | Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia | ||||
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| Notes | Cited By (since 1996): 1; Export Date: 13 November 2008; Source: Scopus | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 4657 | ||
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Warren-Smith, A.K.; Greetham, L.; McGreevy, P.D. | ||||
| Title | Behavioral and physiological responses of horses (Equus caballus) to head lowering | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2007 | Publication | Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research | Abbreviated Journal | |
| Volume | 2 | Issue | 3 | Pages | 59-67 |
| Keywords | behavior; head lowering; heart rate; horse; training | ||||
| Abstract | Horse trainers often report that lowering the height of a horse's head so the poll is below the height of the withers can induce a calming effect during training. Four groups of horses were used in a 2-part study to investigate the behavioral and physiological effects of head lowering in horses. In Part 1, Group A had no experimental stimuli applied and horses in Group B were trained to lower their heads when presented with a specific stimulus by the handler. The stimulus for head lowering was the application of downward pressure on the headcollar via the lead rope until the horse lowered its head such that its lips were approximately at mid-cannon (third metacarpal) height, whereupon the pressure was released. The stimulus was applied again if the horse raised its head during the 300-second test period. In Part 2, Groups C and D were aroused until their heart rates exceeded 100 beats per minute (bpm). Group C had no further experimental stimuli applied whereas Group D lowered their heads as a response to the above stimulus for a period of 300 seconds. Repeated measures analysis showed that there was no difference between the heart rate of Groups A and B or Groups C and D but that the heart rate of Groups A and B were lower than Groups C and D during the 300-second post-arousal (P < 0.001). The horses in Groups A and B were more likely to contact the handler (P < 0.001), exhibit licking and chewing (P < 0.001), rest a hindleg (P < 0.001), and sniff the ground (P < 0.001) than those in Groups C and D. The number of stimuli required to maintain the head in a lowered position was greatest during the first 30 seconds (P = 0.012 and P < 0.001, Parts 1 and 2, respectively). The current study has shown that head lowering in horses does not influence cardiac responses, even after the horses had been aroused to have their heart rates above 100 bpm. Therefore, it is not a method that will aid in calming an aroused horse in training. Contrary to popular belief, there was no association with licking-and-chewing and head lowering, nor with these behaviors and response acquisition. | ||||
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| Notes | Approved | no | |||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 4201 | ||
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| Author |
Warren-Smith, A.K.; Curtis, R.A.; Greetham, L.; McGreevy, P.D. | ||||
| Title | Rein contact between horse and handler during specific equitation movements | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2007 | Publication | Applied Animal Behaviour Science | Abbreviated Journal | Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
| Volume | 108 | Issue | 1-2 | Pages | 157-169 |
| Keywords | Horse; Long-reining; Rein contact; Rein tension; Riding; Training | ||||
| Abstract | To explore the range of tensions used in reins to elicit specific movements from a range of horses, 22 horses of mixed age, sex, breed and training history were long-reined and ridden through a standard course. The reins contained embedded load cells so that tensions used to elicit specific movements could be measured and logged. These movements were categorised into `left turn', `right turn', `going straight' and `halt' and were separated for left and right rein tensions. The data were analysed using two-sample non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnoff tests and the differences between categories of horse and equipment were analysed with one-way analysis of variance. The tensions recorded in the reins were greater for long-reining than riding (median 5.76, Q25 3.9, Q75 13.3 N and median 5.29, Q25 9.3, Q75 2.9 N, respectively, P = 0.025), irrespective of whether the horses were ridden with a halter or a bridle or whether the test was completed at a walk or a trot. The tensions did not differ between the left and right reins (P > 0.05) when the horses were being driven or ridden in a straight line, providing evidence that an `even contact' was maintained. The rein tension required for going straight was less than for any other responses, showing that a lighter contact on the reins can be maintained between the application of specific stimuli. The rein tension required to elicit the halt response was greater than for any other response (P < 0.001). The rein tensions required to complete the course did not differ with the use of bridle versus the halter (P > 0.05). Clearly, a range of rein tensions is required for horses to elicit specific responses. In the interests of horse welfare and avoidance of habituation, those involved in equitation need to become aware of the tensions used in training horses and seek to keep them to a minimum. When rein tension can be measured objectively, this process can be easily implemented and monitored. | ||||
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| Notes | Approved | no | |||
| Call Number | Admin @ knut @ | Serial | 4336 | ||
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| Author |
Warner, S.M.; Koch, T.O.; Pfau, T. | ||||
| Title | Inertial sensors for assessment of back movement in horses during locomotion over ground | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2010 | Publication | Equine Veterinary Journal | Abbreviated Journal | |
| Volume | 42 | Issue | Pages | 417-424 | |
| Keywords | horse; back movement; inertial sensors; kinematics; over ground locomotion | ||||
| Abstract | Reasons for performing study: Assessing back movement is an important part of clinical examination in the horse and objective assessment tools allow for evaluating success of treatment. Objectives: Accuracy and consistency of inertial sensor measurements for quantification of back movement and movement symmetry during over ground locomotion were assessed; sensor measurements were compared to optical motion capture (mocap) and consistency of measurements focusing on movement symmetry was measured. Methods: Six nonlame horses were trotted in hand with synchronised mocap and inertial sensor data collection (landmarks: T6, T10, T13, L1 and S3). Inertial sensor data were processed using published methods and symmetry of dorsoventral displacement was assessed based on energy ratio, a Fourier based symmetry measure. Limits of agreement were calculated and visualised to compare mocap and sensor data. Consistency of sensor measurements was assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression to investigate the effect of speed on movement symmetry. Results: Dorsoventral and mediolateral sensor displacement was observed to lie within ± 4–5 mm (± 2 s.d., 9–28% of movement amplitude) and energy ratio to lie within ± 0.03 of mocap data. High levels of correlation were found between strides and trials (0.86–1.0) for each horse and each sensor and variability of symmetry was lowest for T13 followed by T10, T6, L1 and S3 with no significant effect of speed at T6, T10 and T13. Conclusions: Inertial sensor displacement and symmetry data showed acceptable accuracy and good levels of consistency for back movement. The small mediolateral movement amplitude means that changes of <25% in mediolateral amplitude (also unlikely to be detected by visual assessment) may go undetected. New sensor generations with improved sensor sensitivity and ease of use of equipment indicate good potential for use in a field situation. | ||||
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| Publisher | Blackwell Publishing Ltd | Place of Publication | Editor | ||
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| ISSN | 2042-3306 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | Approved | no | |||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 5926 | ||
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| Author |
Warneken, F.; Tomasello, M. | ||||
| Title | Altruistic Helping in Human Infants and Young Chimpanzees | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2006 | Publication | Science | Abbreviated Journal | |
| Volume | 311 | Issue | 5765 | Pages | 1301-1303 |
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| Abstract | Human beings routinely help others to achieve their goals, even when the helper receives no immediate benefit and the person helped is a stranger. Such altruistic behaviors (toward non-kin) are extremely rare evolutionarily, with some theorists even proposing that they are uniquely human. Here we show that human children as young as 18 months of age (prelinguistic or just-linguistic) quite readily help others to achieve their goals in a variety of different situations. This requires both an understanding of others' goals and an altruistic motivation to help. In addition, we demonstrate similar though less robust skills and motivations in three young chimpanzees. | ||||
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| Publisher | Place of Publication | Editor | |||
| Language | Summary Language | Original Title | |||
| Series Editor | Series Title | Abbreviated Series Title | |||
| Series Volume | Series Issue | Edition | |||
| ISSN | ISBN | Medium | |||
| Area | Expedition | Conference | |||
| Notes | Approved | no | |||
| Call Number | Equine Behaviour @ team @ | Serial | 5607 | ||
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