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Katz, M., & Lachlan, R. F. (2003). Social learning of food types in zebra finches (Taenopygia guttata) is directed by demonstrator sex and feeding activity. Anim. Cogn., 6(1), 11–16.
Abstract: In this study we examined how social learning of feeding preferences by zebra finches was affected by the identity of different demonstrators. We presented adult zebra finches with two demonstrators, one male and one female, that exhibited different food choices, and we recorded their subsequent preference when given a choice between the two food types. Previously it was found that young zebra finches' patterns of social learning are affected by the sex of the individual demonstrating a feeding behaviour. This result could be explained by the lack of exposure these animals had to the opposite sex, or by their mating status. Therefore, we investigated the social learning preferences of adult mated zebra finches. We found the same pattern of directed social learning of a different type of feeding behaviour (food colour): female zebra finches preferred the colour of food eaten by male demonstrators, whereas male zebra finches showed little evidence of any preference for the colour of food eaten by female demonstrators. Furthermore, we found that female observers' preferences were biased by demonstrators' relative feeding activity: the female demonstrator was only ever preferred if it ate less than its male counterpart.
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Kawamura, S. (1967). Aggression as studied in troops of Japanese monkeys. UCLA Forum Med Sci, 7, 195–223.
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Keiper, R. R. (1986). Social structure. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract, 2(3), 465–484.
Abstract: Socially feral horses live in stable social groups characterized by one adult male, a number of adult females, and their offspring up to 2 years of age. Extra males either live by themselves or with other males in bachelor groups. The bands occupy nondefended home ranges that often overlap. Many abnormal behaviors seen in domestic horses occur because some aspect of their normal social behavior cannot be carried out in captivity.
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Kelly, D. M., & Spetch, M. L. (2001). Pigeons encode relative geometry. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process, 27(4), 417–422.
Abstract: Pigeons were trained to search for hidden food in a rectangular environment designed to eliminate any external cues. Following training, the authors administered unreinforced test trials in which the geometric properties of the apparatus were manipulated. During tests that preserved the relative geometry but altered the absolute geometry of the environment, the pigeons continued to choose the geometrically correct corners, indicating that they encoded the relative geometry of the enclosure. When tested in a square enclosure, which distorted both the absolute and relative geometry, the pigeons randomly chose among the 4 corners, indicating that their choices were not based on cues external to the apparatus. This study provides new insight into how metric properties of an environment are encoded by pigeons.
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Kendal, R. L., Coe, R. L., & Laland, K. N. (2005). Age differences in neophilia, exploration, and innovation in family groups of callitrichid monkeys. Am. J. Primatol., 66(2), 167–188.
Abstract: The prevailing assumption in the primate literature is that young or juvenile primates are more innovative than adult individuals. This innovative tendency among the young is frequently thought to be a consequence, or side effect, of their increased rates of exploration and play. Conversely, Reader and Laland's [International Journal of Primatology 22:787-806, 2001] review of the primate innovation literature noted a greater reported incidence of innovation in adults than nonadults, which they interpreted as (in part) a reflection of the greater experience and competence of older individuals. Within callitrichids there is contradictory evidence for age differences in response to novel objects, foods, and foraging tasks. By presenting novel extractive foraging tasks to family groups of callitrichid monkeys in zoos, we examined, in a large sample, whether there are positive or negative relationships of age with neophilia, exploration, and innovation, and whether play or experience most facilitates innovation. The results indicate that exploration and innovation (but not neophilia) are positively correlated with age, perhaps reflecting adults' greater manipulative competence. To the extent that there was evidence for play in younger individuals, it did not appear to contribute to innovation. The implications of these findings for the fields of innovation and conservation through reintroduction are considered.
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Khalil, A. M., & Kaseda, Y. (1997). Behavioral patterns and proximate reason of young male separation in Misaki feral horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 54(4), 281–289.
Abstract: The present investigation was undertaken to study the proximate reasons why and the behavioral patterns of young male Misaki feral horses when they left their natal band or mothers. We observed a total of ten young males twice a month from January 1988 to December 1995. Almost all young males left their natal band or mothers at between 1 and 4 years of age. We found that, during the separation process, all the young males from first parity dams returned several times after the initial separation, indicating a strong attachment between primiparous mares and their male offspring. The other five separated only once without rejoining. Our observations showed five variable behavior patterns of young males at separation time, depending on the consort relation between their mothers and harem stallion and the reason for separation at that time. Eight young males separated in the non-breeding season at average 2.1 years and the other two separated in the breeding season at average 3 years and the average difference was not significant. These results revealed that 80% of the young males separated voluntarily when the natural resources become poor whereas 20% separated when their siblings were born.
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Khalil, A. M., & Kaseda, Y. (1998). Early experience affects developmental behaviour and timing of harem formation in Misaki horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 59(4), 253–263.
Abstract: A study was made of the behavior of young male Misaki feral horses in the developmental stage, by observing nine of them once a week from January 1988 to December 1996. The relationship between behavior before separation and in the developmental stage was also investigated. This stage begins just after young males separate from their natal band or mothers, and it continues until they start to form harems. The duration of the developmental stage in the study ranged from 0.6 to 3.9 years, depending on the age of the young males at the time of separation. Young males associated with three types of social groups at the beginning of the developmental stage, according to their social groups before separation. These were bachelor groups, harem groups and wandering female groups. During this period, males joined the three groups, mixed sex groups and sometimes were solitary. It was considered that these associations provided a good opportunity for males to acquire different behavioral patterns and experiences before they entered the next stage. Depending on the groups with which they associated, young males that spent more time with bachelor groups had the longest average developmental stage. They associated with harem groups more often during the breeding season and more frequently with other groups or were solitary during the non-breeding season. This may be a transition period because by the end of this stage all males had spent time in solitude before forming their own harem bands.
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Khalil, A. M., Murakami, N., & Kaseda, Y. (1998). Relationship between plasma testosterone concentrations and age, breeding season and harem size in Misaki feral horses. J Vet Med Sci, 60(5), 643–645.
Abstract: Jugular vein blood samples were collected from 23 young and sexual mature feral stallions to examine the relationship between plasma testosterone concentration and age, breeding season or harem size. Testosterone concentration increased with the age of the stallions until they formed their own harems, at about 4 to 6 years old. Seasonal variations in testosterone concentrations were observed, and found to be significantly higher (P<0.001) throughout the breeding season than non-breeding season, from 3 years of age. Testosterone levels were correlated with harem size for individual stallions. It can be inferred from these results that there is a relationship between plasma testosterone concentration and age, breeding season and harem size.
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Kienapfel, K. (2011). Und was meinen die Pferde dazu? – Über das Ausdrucksverhalten von Pferden bei verschiedenen Halsstellungen [ And what are the opinions of the horses? – On the expressive behaviour of horses in different neck positions]. Pferdeheilkunde, 27(4), 357–372-380.
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to find convincing arguments, how horses should be ridden correctly, especially concerning the best head and neck position. Currently in the riding world, the opinions differ: The traditional way is to ride a horse with its nose in front of the vertical, while a new method claims that pulling the nose behind the vertical with an extreme flexion of the poll implies “gymnastic movements”. This article is focussed on the welfare and comfort of the horse in different head-neck positions, expressed by behaviours which document discomfort. As a first step, the behaviour of standing horses was observed while their heads and necks were put into seven postulated or frequently assumed positions. In the hyperflexed position the horses displayed most discomfort (with 49,7% of all reactions, like open mouths, head tossing, tail movements and other signs of resentment). The second strongest reactions of discomfort were shown in the highly raised position of the head (34,9%). The moderately rounded neck position as in traditional dressage lessons was not without signs of discomfort either, but less than the other two positions (11,2%). The high position and the extended position did not cause discomfort at all (0,17% and 0,23% respectively). In a second step, horses moving in all gaits under a rider were observed at competitions without the riders´ knowledge. The total number of observations was divided into two categories (each containing 30 horses) on the basis of the common rules of the FN: ridden with the horse’s nose in front of the vertical and ridden with the horse’s nose behind the vertical. The proportion of horses showing discomfort with the nose behind the vertical was clearly much higher (89,3%) compared to those ridden with the nose in front of the vertical (10,7%). Thus, the horses in the first category displayed signs of discomfort 8 times more frequent than those in the second group. In addition, scans carried out at tournaments showed that 92.8% of the horses were ridden with the nose behind the vertical. A clear result of this study is that the reality of riding differs widely from the rules. These results also show that riding in the hyperflexed position causes a great deal of discomfort for the horses and therefore should be abolished.
Die aktuellen Diskussionen in der Reiterwelt, welche Art und Weise des Reitens, besonders welche Kopf-Hals-Stellung zu erstreben ist, werfen die Frage auf, ob und wie die Pferde selbst ihr Befinden zum Ausdruck bringen. Über die Empfindungen der Pferde in verschiedenen Kopfhaltungen ist bisher sehr wenig bekannt. Deswegen wurde zunächst an stehenden Pferden das Ausdrucksverhalten beobachtet. Missfallensäußerungen häuften sich (mit 49,7% aller gezeigten Verhaltensauffälligkeiten wie Sperren, Rückwärtsgehen und Kopfschlagen) in der aufgerollten, hyperflektierten Stellung des Halses. An zweiter Stelle folgten Unmutsäußerungen in der absolut aufgerichteten Haltung (34,9%). Auch die beigezäumte Haltung wurde nicht ohne Unmutsbekundungen hingenommen, hier war deren Anzahl aber wesentlich geringer (11,2%). Die hohe Kopfstellung (0,17%) und die Dehnungshaltung (0,23%) bereiteten den Tieren kaum Unbehagen. Auch das Ausdrucksverhalten der Pferde unter dem Reiter wurde untersucht. Hierfür wurden, unter Berücksichtigung der schriftlich fixierten Regeln für das Turnierwesen der FN, je 30 Pferde in zwei Kategorien beobachtet: mit der Stirnlinie vor der Senkrechten und Pferde mit der Stirnlinie hinter der Senkrechten. Die Beobachtungen wurden unbemerkt von den Reitern auf den Abreiteplätzen von Turnieren durchgeführt. Die Anzahl an Verhaltensauffälligkeiten der Pferde mit der Stirnlinie hinter der Senkrechten war deutlich (89,3 %) erhöht im Gegensatz zu der anderen Gruppe (10,7 %). Die Pferde mit der Stirnlinie hinter der Senkrechten zeigten 8 Mal mehr Unmutsäußerungen als die mit der Stirnlinie vor der Senkrechten. Entgegen den Regeln der FN zeigten die durchgeführten Scans, dass unmittelbar vor den Prüfungen auf Turnieren 92,8% der Pferde mit der Stirnnasen-Linie hinter der Senkrechten geritten wurden. Ein Befund dieser Studie ist die Feststellung, dass die Praxis deutlich von den Regeln abweicht. Das Reiten mit der Stirnlinie hinter der Senkrechten ist nach diesen Befunden abzulehnen, da die Pferde deutliches Unwohlsein in dieser Haltung signalisieren.
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Kiley, M. (1972). The vocalizations of ungulates, their causation and function. Z. Tierpsychol., 31(2), 171–222.
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