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Gasser, R. B., Hung, G. - C., Chilton, N. B., & Beveridge, I. (2004). Advances in developing molecular-diagnostic tools for strongyloid nematodes of equids: fundamental and applied implications. Mol Cell Probes, 18(1), 3–16.
Abstract: Infections of equids with parasitic nematodes of the order Strongylida (subfamilies Strongylinae and Cyathostominae) are of major veterinary importance. In last decades, the widespread use of drugs against these parasites has led to problems of resistance within the Cyathostominae, and to an increase in their prevalence and intensity of infection. Novel control strategies, based on improved knowledge of parasite biology and epidemiology, have thus become important. However, there are substantial limitations in the understanding of fundamental biological and systematic aspects of these parasites, which have been due largely to limitations in their specific identification and diagnosis using traditional, morphological approaches. Recently, there has been progress in the development of DNA-based approaches for the specific identification of strongyloids of equids for systematic studies and disease diagnosis. The present article briefly reviews information on the classification, biology, pathogenesis, epidemiology of equine strongyloids and the diagnosis of infections, highlights knowledge gaps in these areas, describes recent advances in the use of molecular techniques for the genetic characterisation, specific identification and differentiation of strongyloids of equids as a basis for fundamental investigations of the systematics, population biology and ecology.
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Giangaspero, A., Traversa, D., & Otranto, D. (2004). [Ecology of Thelazia spp. in cattle and their vectors in Italy]. Parassitologia, 46(1-2), 257–259.
Abstract: The genus Thelazia (Spirurida, Thelaziidae) includes a cosmopolitan group of eyeworm spirurids responsible for ocular infections in domestic and wild animals and transmitted by different species of muscids. Bovine thelaziosis is caused by Thelazia rhodesi Desmarest 1828, Thelazia gulosa Railliet & Henry 1910, and Thelazia skrjabini Erschow 1928, which occur in many countries; T. gulosa and T. skrjabini have been reported mainly in the New World, while T. rhodesi is particularly common in the Old World. In Italy, T. rhodesi was reported in southern regions a long time ago and, recently, T. gulosa and T. skrjabini have been identified in autochthonous cattle first in Apulia and then in Sardinia. Thirteen species of Musca are listed as intermediate hosts of eyeworms, but only Musca autumnalis and Musca larvipara have been demonstrated to act as vectors of Thelazia in the ex-URSS, North America, ex-Czechoslovakia and more recently in Sweden. In Italy, after the reports of T. gulosa and T. skrjabini in southern regions, the intermediate hosts of bovine eyeworms were initially only suspected as the predominant secretophagous Muscidae collected from the periocular region of cattle with thelaziosis were the face flies, M. autumnalis and M. larvipara, followed by Musca osiris, Musca tempestiva and Musca domestica. The well-known constraints in the identification of immature eyeworms to species by fly dissection and also the time-consuming techniques used constitute important obstacles to epidemiological field studies (i.e. vector identification and/or role, prevalence and pattern of infection in flies, etc.). Molecular studies have recently permitted to further investigations into this area. A PCR-RFLP analysis of the ribosomal ITS-1 sequence was developed to differentiate the 3 species of Thelazia (i.e. T. gulosa, T. rhodesi and T. skrjabini) found in Italy, then a molecular epidemiological survey has recently been carried out in field conditions throughout five seasons of fly activity and has identified the role of M. autumnalis, M. larvipara, M. osiris and M. domestica as vectors of T. gulosa and of M. autumnalis and M. larvipara of T. rhodesi. Moreover, M. osiris was described, for the first time, to act as a vector of T. gulosa and M. larvipara of T. gulosa and T. rhodesi. The mean prevalence in the fly population examined was found to be 2.86%. The molecular techniques have opened new perspectives for further research on the ecology and epidemiology not only of Thelazia in cattle but also of other autochthonous species of Thelazia which have been also recorded in Italy, such as Thelazia callipaeda, which is responsible for human and canid ocular infection and Thelazia lacrymalis, the horse eyeworm whose epidemiological molecular studies are in progress.
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Barros, A. T. (2001). Seasonality and relative abundance of Tabanidae (Diptera) captured on horses in the Pantanal, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz, 96(7), 917–923.
Abstract: Once a month, from June 1992 to May 1993, collections of tabanids on horse were conducted in the Nhecolandia, Pantanal State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Tabanid catches using hand nets were conducted from sunrise to sunset at grassland and cerradao (dense savanna) habitats. A total of 3,442 tabanids from 21 species,12 genera, and 3 subfamilies were collected. Although species abundance varied seasonally depending on habitat, no habitat specificity was observed for the most abundant species. In the grassland, 1,625 (47.2%) tabanids belonging to 19 species were collected, while 1,817 (52.8%) tabanids from 17 species were caught in the cerradao. The number of tabanid species varied from 7 during winter (July/August) to 15 in the spring (October). Tabanus importunus (56%) was the most abundant species, followed by T. occidentalis (8.2%), and T. claripennis (8.1%). The tabanid peak, in October, coincided with the beginning of the rainy season. The population peak of most species, including those with higher vector potential, suggests that the rainy season can be considered as the period of potentially higher risk of mechanical transmission of pathogens by tabanids to horses in the region.
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Hutchinson, G. W., Abba, S. A., & Mfitilodze, M. W. (1989). Seasonal translation of equine strongyle infective larvae to herbage in tropical Australia. Vet Parasitol, 33(3-4), 251–263.
Abstract: Longevity in faeces, migration to and survival on herbage of mixed strongyle infective larvae (approximately 70% cyathostomes: 30% large strongyles) from experimentally deposited horse faeces was studied in the dry tropical region of North Queensland for up to 2 years. Larvae were recovered from faeces deposited during hot dry weather for a maximum of 12 weeks, up to 32 weeks in cool conditions, but less than 8 weeks in hot wet summer. Translation to herbage was mainly limited to the hot wet season (December-March), except when unseasonal winter rainfall of 40-50 mm per month in July and August allowed some additional migration. Survival on pasture was estimated at 2-4 weeks in the summer wet season and 8-12 weeks in the autumn-winter dry season (April-August). Hot dry spring weather (pre-wet season) was the most unfavourable for larval development, migration and survival. Peak counts of up to 60,000 larvae kg-1 dry herbage were recorded. The seasonal nature of pasture contamination allowed the development of rational anthelmintic control programs based on larval ecology.
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Lemasson, J. J., Fontenille, D., Lochouarn, L., Dia, I., Simard, F., Ba, K., et al. (1997). Comparison of behavior and vector efficiency of Anopheles gambiae and An. arabiensis (Diptera:Culicidae) in Barkedji, a Sahelian area of Senegal. J Med Entomol, 34(4), 396–403.
Abstract: The ecology, population dynamics, and malaria vector efficiency of Anopheles gambiae and An. arabiensis were studied for 2 yr in a Sahelian village of Senegal. Anophelines were captured at human bait and resting indoors by pyrethrum spray. Mosquitoes belonging to the An. gambiae complex were identified by polymerase chain reaction. Of 26,973 females, An. arabiensis represented 79% of the mosquitoes captured and remained in the study area longer than An. gambiae after the rains terminated. There were no differences in nocturnal biting cycles or endophagous rates between An. gambiae and An. arabiensis. Based on an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test of bloodmeals, the anthropophilic rate of these 2 vectors were both approximately 60%, when comparisons were made during the same period. Overall, 18% of the resting females had patent mixed bloodmeals, mainly human-bovine. The parity rates of An. gambiae and An. arabiensis varied temporally. Despite similar behavior, the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein (CSP) rates were different between An. gambiae (4.1%) and An. arabiensis (1.3%). P. malariae and P. ovale only represented 4% of the total Plasmodium identified in mosquitoes. Transmission was seasonal, occurring mainly during 4 mo. The CSP entomological inoculation rates were 128 bites per human per year for the 1st yr and 100 for the 2nd yr. Because of the combination of a high human biting rate and a low CSP rate, An. arabiensis accounted for 63% of transmission. Possible origin of differences in CSP rate between An. gambiae and An. arabiensis is discussed in relation to the parity rate, blood feeding frequency, and the hypothesis of genetic factors.
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Gothe, R. (1994). [Tapeworms, a problem in equine practice?]. Tierarztl Prax, 22(5), 466–470.
Abstract: This paper gives a survey on biology and ecology of equine tapeworms as well as on pathogenesis, clinics, diagnosis, therapy, and prophylaxis of tapeworm infections.
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Assersohn, C., Whiten, A., Kiwede, Z. T., Tinka, J., & Karamagi, J. (2004). Use of leaves to inspect ectoparasites in wild chimpanzees: a third cultural variant? Primates, 45(4), 255–258.
Abstract: We report 26 cases of using leaves as tools with which wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Sonso community, Budongo Forest, Uganda, appeared to inspect objects removed during grooming. Careful removal of potential ectoparasites and delicate lip or manual placement on leaves followed by intense visual examination characterised this behaviour. It appears to be done to judge whether either ingestion or discarding is most appropriate, the former occurring in most cases. This behaviour may represent a third variant of ectoparasite handling, different from those described at Tai and Gombe, yet sharing features with the latter. These two East African techniques may thus have evolved from leaf grooming.
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Lafferty, K. D. (2005). Look what the cat dragged in: do parasites contribute to human cultural diversity? Behav. Process., 68(3), 279–282.
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