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Author |
Gallup, G.G.J. |
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Title |
Do minds exist in species other than our own? |
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Year |
1985 |
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Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
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Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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9 |
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4 |
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631-641 |
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Animals; Awareness; *Behavior, Animal; Child Psychology; Child, Preschool; *Cognition; Consciousness; Evolution; Humans; Infant; Language; Pan troglodytes; Philosophy; Psychological Theory; Species Specificity |
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An answer to the question of animal awareness depends on evidence, not intuition, anecdote, or debate. This paper examines some of the problems inherent in an analysis of animal awareness, and whether animals might be aware of being aware is offered as a more meaningful distinction. A framework is presented which can be used to make a determination about the extent to which other species have experiences similar to ours based on their ability to make inferences and attributions about mental states in others. The evidence from both humans and animals is consistent with the idea that the capacity to use experience to infer the experience of others is a byproduct of self-awareness. |
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0149-7634 |
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PMID:4080281 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2808 |
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Epstein, R. |
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Title |
Animal cognition as the praxist views it |
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Journal Article |
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1985 |
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Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
Abbreviated Journal |
Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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9 |
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4 |
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623-630 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Behavioral Sciences/*trends; Behaviorism; *Cognition; Columbidae; History, 18th Century; History, 19th Century; Humans; Models, Psychological; Problem Solving; Psychological Theory; Psychology/history/trends |
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The distinction between psychology and praxics provides a clear answer to the question of animal cognition. As Griffin and others have noted, the kinds of behavioral phenomena that lead psychologists to speak of cognition in humans are also observed in nonhuman animals, and therefore those who are convinced of the legitimacy of psychology should not hesitate to speak of and to attempt to study animal cognition. The behavior of organisms is also a legitimate subject matter, and praxics, the study of behavior, has led to significant advances in our understanding of the kinds of behaviors that lead psychologists to speak of cognition. Praxics is a biological science; the attempt by students of behavior to appropriate psychology has been misguided. Generativity theory is an example of a formal theory of behavior that has proved useful both in the engineering of intelligent performances in nonhuman animals and in the prediction of intelligent performances in humans. |
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0149-7634 |
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PMID:3909017 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2809 |
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Cooper, J.J.; Ashton, C.; Bishop, S.; West, R.; Mills, D.S.; Young, R.J. |
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Title |
Clever hounds: social cognition in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) |
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Journal Article |
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2003 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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81 |
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3 |
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229-244 |
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Domestic dog; Canine; Social cognition; Counting; Theory of mind; Perspective taking |
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This paper reviews the reasons why domestic dogs make good models to investigate cognitive processes related to social living and describes experimental approaches that can be adopted to investigate such processes in dogs. Domestic dogs are suitable models for investigating social cognition skills for three broad reasons. First, dogs originated from wolves, social animals that engage in a number of co-operative behaviours, such as hunting and that may have evolved cognitive abilities that help them predict and interpret the actions of other animals. Second, during domestication dogs are likely to have been selected for mental adaptations for their roles in human society such as herding or companionship. Third, domestic dogs live in a human world and “enculturation” may facilitate the development of relevant mental skills in dogs. Studies of social cognition in animals commonly use experimental paradigms originally developed for pre-verbal human infants. Preferential gaze, for example, can be used as a measure of attention or “surprise” in studies using expectancy violation. This approach has been used to demonstrate simple numerical competence in dogs. Dogs also readily use both conspecific and human social signals (e.g. looking or pointing) as information sources to locate hidden rewards such as food or favourite toys. Such abilities make dogs particularly good models for investigating perspective-taking tasks, where animals are required to discriminate between apparently knowledgeable and apparently ignorant informants. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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395 |
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Crowley, P.H.; Provencher, L.; Sloane, S.; Dugatkin, L.A.; Spohn, B.; Rogers, L.; Alfieri, M. |
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Title |
Evolving cooperation: the role of individual recognition |
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Year |
1996 |
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Biosystems |
Abbreviated Journal |
Biosystems |
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37 |
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1-2 |
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49-66 |
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Game theory; Genetic algorithms; Individual recognition; Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma; Reciprocal altruism |
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To evaluate the role of individual recognition in the evolution of cooperation, we formulated and analyzed a genetic algorithm model (EvCo) for playing the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma (IPD) game. Strategies compete against each other during each generation, and successful strategies contribute more of their attributes to the next generation. Each strategy is encoded on a `chromosome' that plays the IPD, responding to the sequences of most recent responses by the interacting individuals (chromosomes). The analysis reported in this paper considered different memory capabilities (one to five previous interactions), pairing continuities (pairs of individuals remain together for about one, two, five, or 1000 consecutive interactions), and types of individual recognition (recognition capability was maximal, nil, or allowed to evolve between these limits). Analysis of the results focused on the frequency of mutual cooperation in pairwise interactions (a good indicator of overall success in the IPD) and on the extent to which previous responses by the focal individual and its partner were associated with the partner's identity (individual recognition). Results indicated that a fixed, substantial amount of individual recognition could maintain high levels of mutual cooperation even at low pairing continuities, and a significant but limited capability for individual recognition evolved under selection. Recognition generally increased mutual cooperation more when the recent responses of individuals other than the current partner were ignored. Titrating recognition memory under selection using a fitness cost suggested that memory of the partner's previous responses was more valuable than memory of the focal's previous responses. The dynamics produced to date by EvCo are a step toward understanding the evolution of social networks, for which additional benefits associated with group interactions must be incorporated. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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483 |
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Author |
Czaran, T. |
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Title |
Game theory and evolutionary ecology: Evolutionary Games & Population Dynamics by J. Hofbauer and K. Sigmund, and Game Theory & Animal Behaviour, edited by L.A. Dugatkin and H.K. Reeve |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1999 |
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Trends in Ecology & Evolution |
Abbreviated Journal |
Trends. Ecol. Evol |
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14 |
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6 |
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246-247 |
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Game theory; Evolutionary ecology; Population dynamics; Ethology |
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485 |
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Author |
Dugatkin, L.A.; Bekoff, M. |
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Title |
Play and the evolution of fairness: a game theory model |
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Journal Article |
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2003 |
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Behavioural Processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Process. |
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60 |
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3 |
Pages |
209-214 |
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Play; Fairness; Game theory |
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Bekoff [J. Consci. Stud. 8 (2001) 81] argued that mammalian social play is a useful behavioral phenotype on which to concentrate in order to learn more about the evolution of fairness. Here, we build a game theoretical model designed to formalize some of the ideas laid out by Bekoff, and to examine whether `fair' strategies can in fact be evolutionarily stable. The models we present examine fairness at two different developmental stages during an individual's ontogeny, and hence we create four strategies--fair at time 1/fair at time 2, not fair at time 1/not fair at time 2, fair at time 1/not fair at time 2, not fair at time 1/fair at time 2. Our results suggest that when considering species where fairness can be expressed during two different developmental stages, acting fairly should be more common than never acting fairly. In addition, when no one strategy was evolutionarily stable, we found that all four strategies we model can coexist at evolutionary equilibrium. Even in the absence of an overwhelming database from which to test our model, the general predictions we make have significant implications for the evolution of fairness. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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488 |
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Dall, Sasha R. X; Houston, Alasdair I.; McNamara, John M. |
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The behavioural ecology of personality: consistent individual differences from an adaptive perspective |
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2004 |
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Ecology Letters |
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Ecol. Letters |
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7 |
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734-739 |
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Adaptive individual differences, behavioural ecology, behavioural syndromes, evolutionary game theory, life history strategies, personality differences, state-dependent dynamic programming |
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Individual humans, and members of diverse other species, show consistent differences in
aggressiveness, shyness, sociability and activity. Such intraspecific differences in
behaviour have been widely assumed to be non-adaptive variation surrounding
(possibly) adaptive population-average behaviour. Nevertheless, in keeping with recent
calls to apply Darwinian reasoning to ever-finer scales of biological variation, we sketch
the fundamentals of an adaptive theory of consistent individual differences in behaviour.
Our thesis is based on the notion that such .personality differences. can be selected for if
fitness payoffs are dependent on both the frequencies with which competing strategies
are played and an individual`s behavioural history. To this end, we review existing models
that illustrate this and propose a game theoretic approach to analyzing personality
differences that is both dynamic and state-dependent. Our motivation is to provide
insights into the evolution and maintenance of an apparently common animal trait:
personality, which has far reaching ecological and evolutionary implications. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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494 |
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Author |
Itakura, S. |
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Title |
Gaze Following and Joint Visual Attention in Nonhuman Animals |
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2004 |
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Japanese Psychological Research |
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Jpn. Psychol. Res. |
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3 |
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216-226 |
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gaze-following; joint visual attention; theory of mind; nonhuman animal |
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n this paper, studies of gaze-following and joint visual attention in nonhuman animals are reviewed from the theoretical perspective of Emery (2000). There are many studies of gaze-following and joint visual attention in nonhuman primates. The reports concern not only adult individuals but also the development of these abilities. Studies to date suggest that monkeys and apes are able to follow the gaze of others, but only apes can understand the seeing-knowing relationship with regards to conspecifics in competitive situations. Also, there have recently been some reports of ability to follow the gaze of humans in domestic animals, such as dogs or horses, interacting with humans. These domestic animals are considered to have acquired this ability during their long history of selective breeding by humans. However, we need to clarify social gaze parameters in various species to improve our knowledge of the evolution of how we process others gazing, attention, and mental states. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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545 |
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Author |
Dugatkin, L.; Alfieri, M. |
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Tit-For-Tat in guppies (Poecilia reticulata): the relative nature of cooperation and defection during predator inspection |
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1991 |
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Evolutionary Ecology |
Abbreviated Journal |
Evol. Ecol. |
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5 |
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3 |
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300-309 |
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Game theory – Tit-For-Tat – predator inspection – guppy |
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Summary The introduction of game-theoretical thinking into evolutionary biology has laid the groundwork for a heuristic view of animal behaviour in which individuals employ “strategies” – rules that instruct them how to behave in a given circumstance to maximize relative fitness. Axelrod and Hamilton (1981) found that a strategy called Tit-For-Tat (TFT) is one robust cooperative solution to the iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game. There exists, however, little empirical evidence that animals employ TFT. Predator inspection in fish provides one ecological context in which to examine the use of the TFT strategy. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2177 |
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Author |
McGreevy, P.D.; McLean, A.N. |
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Roles of learning theory and ethology in equitation |
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2007 |
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research |
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2 |
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4 |
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108-118 |
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ethological training; equine ethnology; equitation; horse behavior; learning theory |
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By definition, ethology is primarily the scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being the study of animal behavior in the human domain. The terms equine ethology and ethological training are becoming commonplace in the equestrian domain, yet they seem to be used with a conspicuous lack of clarity and with no mention of learning theory. Most of what we do to train horses runs counter to their innate preferences. This article summarizes the ethological challenges encountered by working horses and considers the merits and limitations of ethological solutions. It also questions the use of terms such as “alpha” and “leader” and examines aspects of learning theory, equine cognition, and ethology as applied to horse training and clinical behavior modification. We propose 7 training principles that optimally account for the horse's ethological and learning abilities and maintain maximal responsivity in the trained horse. These principles can be summarized as: (1) use learning theory appropriately; (2) train easy-to-discriminate signals; (3) train and subsequently elicit responses singularly; (4) train only one response per signal; (5) train all responses to be initiated and subsequently completed within a consistent structure; (6) train persistence of current operantly conditioned responses; and (7) avoid and disassociate flight responses. Adherence to these principles and incorporating them into all horse training methodologies should accelerate training success, reduce behavioral wastage of horses, and improve safety for both humans and horses. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4511 |
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