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Rehren, K. D. |
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Untersuchung der „Schiefe“ des Pferdes:Symmetrie von Bewegungsablauf und Hufbelastung |
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2018 |
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Wissenschaftliche Reihe der Klinik für Pferde |
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Ziel der Studie war die Beschreibung der motorischen Lateralität („Schiefe“) gesunder adulter Pferde. Hierzu wurden 14 lahmfreie Pferde (10 Warmblüter, 4 Quarter Horses) auf dem Laufband in Schritt und Trab auf individuelle Abweichungen von der symmetri-schen Bewegung hinsichtlich Abstellung der Hinterhand, Wirbelsäulenform (Biegung), Vor- und Rückführung sowie Belastung von Vorder- und Hintergliedmaßen jeweils simul-tan hochfrequenzkinematographisch und kinetisch mittels resistiver Hufdrucksensoren untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden bevorzugte Abstellung und Biegung sowie Galopppräfe-renz klinisch bzw. reiterlich beurteilt, das Vorliegen einer Weideschrittpräferenz unter-sucht und Freilaufversuche (bevorzugte Abbiegerichtung, Ausweichrichtung um ein Hin-dernis, Galoppräferenz) durchgeführt. Keines der Pferde zeigte Symmetrie über alle Merkmale; zwar wurde bei jedem Merkmal für einzelne Probanden Symmetrie festgestellt, mit Ausnahme des Galopp-Freilaufver-suchs trat Asymmetrie jedoch häufiger auf. 12 Probanden zeigten in der Bewegungsana-lyse eine signifikante seitliche Abstellung (8x rechts (R), 4x links (L), mittlere seitliche Abweichung im Schritt 1,22°±1,09°, im Trab 1,05°±1,03°), 10 eine bevorzugte Biegung (9x L, 1x R), 13 signifikante Asymmetrien der Gliedmaßenvor- bzw. -rückführung und 12 eine signifikante asymmetrische Gliedmaßenbelastung für die normalisierte Spitzenkraft (PFN, peak force) bzw. den Impuls der Belastung (IN) an mindestens einem Beinpaar (alle Merkmale individuell wiederholbar). Linksabgestellte Pferde führten in beiden Gang-arten das rechte Hinterbein signifikant weiter zurück als nach rechts abgestellte Pferde, die tendenziell eher das linke Hinterbein weiter zurückführten. – Die auf dem Laufband festgestellten Asymmetrien traten in beiden Gangarten auf, aber nicht immer überein-stimmend, wobei die Richtung der bevorzugten Abstellung und ebenso der bevorzugten Biegung beim einzelnen Pferd in Schritt und Trab nie gegensätzlich waren. Jeder dieser beiden Parameter wurde daher für das einzelne Pferd über beide Gangarten zusammen-gefasst. Die Richtung von Abstellung und Biegung waren voneinander unabhängig, so-dass die Bewegungsmuster Abstellung ohne Biegung, Biegung ohne Abstellung, Abstel-lung mit Biegung in Laufrichtung (Travers) sowie Abstellung mit Biegung entgegen der Laufrichtung (Schulterherein) vorkamen. Kein Pferd war in beiden Merkmalen symmet-risch; für manche Pferde war neben der einfachen Biegung auch eine S-Form der Wir-belsäule signifikant. Die Belastungssymmetrie der Gliedmaßen war in beiden Gangarten von der Abstellung und der Biegung unabhängig, es gab aber Hinweise auf Zusammen-hänge zwischen bestimmten Kombinationen von Abstellung und Biegung einerseits und der Existenz einer Belastungsasymmetrie der Vorderbeine im Trab andererseits (unge-bogen mit Abstellung laufende und im Schulterherein laufende Pferde belasteten i.d.R. asymmetrisch).
8 Pferde wiesen eine signifikante Weideschrittpräferenz auf (5x L, 3x R), die bei ebenso vorhandener seitlicher Abstellung signifkant häufiger auf der der Abstellung abgewandten Seite auftrat. Sie wies keinen Zusammenhang mit der Rückführung der Hinterbeine im Schritt oder im Trab auf. Das Auftreten einer Weideschrittpräferenz war signifikant vom durch Abstellung und Biegung bestimmten Bewegungsmuster abhängig (Auftreten bei Abstellung ohne Biegung und bei Schulterherein, nicht bei Travers oder Biegung ohne Abstellung). Zudem zeigt die Präferenz der Pferde im Weideschritt eine starke Überein-stimmung mit der Belastungssymmetrie der Vorderbeine im Trab (bevorzugt vorgestelltes Bein wird mehr belastet (IN); symmetrische Belastung bei fehlender Präferenz). Im Hindernisversuch hatten 12 von 13 getesteten Probanden eine signifikant bevorzugte Ausweichrichtung (5x L, 7x R); diese war unabhängig von der gemessenen Wirbelsäulenform, lag aber bei Pferden mit seitlicher Abstellung überwiegend auf der Seite der gemessenen Abstellung. Im Abbiegeversuch zeigten 6 von 12 getesteten Probanden eine signifikant bevorzugte Abbiegerichtung (3x L, 3x R), diese war weder von der Abstellungsrichtung noch von der Wirbelsäulenform, der Weideschrittpräferenz oder der Belastungssymmetrie der Vorderbeine im Trab abhängig. Die meisten Pferde zeigten im Freilauf keine signifikante Galopppräferenz (2x L, 11x gerade (N), 1x R), wogegen reiterlich bei den meisten Pferden eine Präferenz festgestellt wurde; beide Beurteilungen stimmten ebenso wie die Beurteilungen verschiedener Reiter nicht miteinander überein. Die gemessene Abstellungsrichtung ließ sich durch visuelle Beobachtung mit hoher Si-cherheit vorhersagen. Die bevorzugte Wirbelsäulenform stimmte nicht mit der reiterlich oder an der Longe festgestellten Biegung überein, wohl aber mit der Seite, auf die die Mähne fällt. Die vorliegende Studie weist nach, dass individuell stabile motorische Lateralität, weitge-hend bestehend aus den den Merkmalen der reiterlich postulierten „Schiefe“, bei gesun-den Pferden in symmetrischen Gangarten besteht und dass zwischen bestimmten Merkmalen vorhersagbare Zusammenhänge bestehen. Daraus ergeben sich wertvolle Schlussfolgerungen für das reiterliche Geraderichten des Pferdes, für das in Übereinstimmung mit der Reitliteratur insbesondere die Lektion Schulterherein geeignet erscheint. Es ist gelungen, für die wesentlichen Merkmale Abstellung, Biegung und Belastungssymmetrie der Vordergliedmaßen im Trab klinische Tests aufzuzeigen, die mit hoher Sicher-heit die Ergebnisse der Bewegungsanalyse vorhersagen können, wobei Rückschlüsse auf weitere asymmetrische Merkmale möglich sind. Die reiterliche Beurteilung von bevor-zugter Biegung und Galopppräferenz scheint jedoch von weiteren Faktoren außer dem Pferd selbst abhängig zu sein und stimmt häufig nicht mit den messbaren Parametern überein. – In dieser Studie wird erstmals eine wissenschaftlich überprüfte und klinisch anwendbare Methode zur umfassenden Analyse der motorischen Lateralität im Sinne der „Schiefe“ eines Pferdes beschrieben.
Summary -“Crookedness“ in the Horse: Symmetry of Motion and Hoof Loading
The purpose of this study was description of motor laterality (in terms of “crookedness“) of sound adult horses. 14 non-lame horses (10 Warmblood horses, 4 Quarter Horses) were examined walking and trotting on a treadmill for individual motion asymmetry concerning keeping the hindlimbs at an angle (hindlimbs not tracking the frontlimbs, “hindquarter angle”), lateroflexion, pro- and retraction of the limbs as well as loading of front- and hindlimbs. High-speed-kinematography and resistive pressure sensors were used simultanously. The horses were also ridden to evaluate preferred lateroflexion and preferred lead in canter. Moving at an angle towards a preferred side was assessed visually. Laterality of grazing stance was tested, as well as preferred turning direction, obstacle avoidance direction and preferred lead in canter while moving unrestrained in an arena. None of the horses moved symetrically over all traits; although there were symmetrical traits with individual horses, asymmetry was more commen (except for the unrestrained preferred lead test). On the treadmill, 12 horses moved with their hindquarters significantly at a angle (8x right (R), 4x left (L), mean lateral angle 1,22°±1,09° at a walk and 1,05°±1,03° at a trot), 10 showed laterality for lateroflexion (9x L, 1x R), 13 had significant asymmetries for protraction and/ or retraction and 12 for loading of contralateral limbs concerning normalized peak force (PFN) and impulse (IN), respectively, of at least one pair of limbs (all with good repeatibility). Horses keeping their hindquarters to the left showed significantly larger retraction of the right hindlimb compared to horses keeping their hindquarters to the right, who tended to further retract the left hindlimb. – Asymmetries found on the treadmill occurred in both gaits but were not always the same in both gaits, though the direction of the hindquarter angle as well as that of the preferred lateroflexion never contradicted each other within the same individual. Therefore, a specific laterality direction of hindquarter angle and lateroflexion could be assigned to each horse. The direction of preferred hindquarter angle and lateroflexion, respectively, were independent of each other so that the movement patterns “hindquarter angle without lateroflexion”, “lateroflexion without hindquarter angle”, “hindquarter angle with lateroflexion to the same side” (hindquarter-in/ travers) and “hindquarter angle with lateroflexion to opposite sides” (shoulder-in) could be found; no horse moved symmetrical for both traits. The lateroflexion of some horses could even be regarded as a double bend. At both gaits, symmetry of limb loading was independent of hindquarter angle as well as lateroflexion, taken seperately; still, there seems to be a relation between certain combinations of hindquarter angle and lateroflexion, on the one side, and the existence or absence of asymmetric loading of the frontlimbs in trot (horses moving with hindquarter angle, but without lateroflexion, and horses moving in shoulder-in mostly had asymmetric frontlimb loading).
238 7. Summary8 horses displayed laterality for a grazing stance (5x L, 3x R); their hindquarter angle, if they showed one, was significantly more often on the opposite side of their advanced frontleg while grazing. The direction of the grazing stance was independent of hindlimb retraction symmetry in either gait. Occurrence of grazing stance laterality significantly depended on the movement pattern consisting of hindquarter angle and lateroflexion (horses moving with a hindquarter angle, but without lateroflexion, and horses moving in shoulder-in mostly showed grazing stance laterality, while horses moving with lateroflexion, but without a hindquarter angle, and horses moving in hindquarter-in did not). Also, grazing stance laterality was highly predictive of the symmetry of frontlimb loading at trot (advanced frontleg has significantly higher impulse (IN) at trot; horses without grazing stance laterality showed symmetrical impulse). 12 of 13 horses displayed laterality for obstacle avoidance direction (5x L, 7x R) that was independent of the individually preferred lateroflexion but if the horses showed a hindquarter angle it was usually to the same side. 6 of 12 horses showed laterality for turning direction (3x L, 3x R) that had no relation to laterality of either hindquarter angle, lateroflexion, grazing stance or frontlimb loading symmetry at trot. Most horses had no significant lead preference in the unrestrained canter test (2x L, 11x no preference (N), 1x R) even though riders assigned a lead preference to most horses; both ratings did not match, as well as the rating between two different riders did not match. The (measured) direction of hindquarter angle was highly predictable by visual asessment. Preferred (measured) lateroflexion did not match the direction of lateroflexion assigned by either rider or on the long line; it was in agreement with the mane side of the horse, though. This study proves that individual and stable motor laterality exists in sound horses in symmetrical gaits, mostly consisting of the traits that are hypothesized as “crookedness” in riding literature. It also shows that predictible relationships exist between certain traits thereof. This knowledge is valuable since it has implications for the training of riding horses for straightness, wherefore especially riding shoulder-in should be helpful. Relatively easy clinical tests could successfully be found that allow well predicting main features of individual horses ́ motor laterality like hindquarter angle, lateroflexion and frontlimb loading symmetry at trot as measured on the treadmill. Some conclusions can also be drawn for other asymmetrical traits. The asessment of preferred lateroflexion and canter lead performed by riders, though, seems to also underlie other influences than the horse itself and failed to be a predictor of the measured traits. – For the first time, a scientifically proven and clinically applicable method of asessing a horses motor laterality in terms of “crookedness” is presented. |
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http://dnb.d-nb.de |
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Ph.D. thesis |
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Cuvillier Verlag |
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Göttingen |
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Karsten Feige, Peter Stadler,Harald Sieme, Bernhard Ohnesorge |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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d'Ingeo, S.; Quaranta, A.; Siniscalchi, M.; Stomp, M.; Coste, C.; Bagnard, C.; Hausberger, M.; Cousillas, H. |
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Horses associate individual human voices with the valence of past interactions: a behavioural and electrophysiological study |
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2019 |
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Scientific Reports |
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9 |
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1 |
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11568 |
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Brain lateralization is a phenomenon widely reported in the animal kingdom and sensory laterality has been shown to be an indicator of the appraisal of the stimulus valence by an individual. This can prove a useful tool to investigate how animals perceive intra- or hetero-specific signals. The human-animal relationship provides an interesting framework for testing the impact of the valence of interactions on emotional memories. In the present study, we tested whether horses could associate individual human voices with past positive or negative experiences. Both behavioural and electroencephalographic measures allowed examining laterality patterns in addition to the behavioural reactions. The results show that horses reacted to voices associated with past positive experiences with increased attention/arousal (gamma oscillations in the right hemisphere) and indicators of a positive emotional state (left hemisphere activation and ears held forward), and to those associated with past negative experiences with negative affective states (right hemisphere activation and ears held backwards). The responses were further influenced by the animals' management conditions (e.g. box or pasture). Overall, these results, associating brain and behaviour analysis, clearly demonstrate that horses' representation of human voices is modulated by the valence of prior horse-human interactions. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ d'Ingeo2019 |
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6582 |
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Irving-Pease, E.K.; Ryan, H.; Jamieson, A.; Dimopoulos, E.A.; Larson, G.; Frantz, L.A.F. |
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Paleogenomics of Animal Domestication |
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2019 |
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Paleogenomics: Genome-Scale Analysis of Ancient DNA |
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225-272 |
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Starting with dogs, over 15,000 years ago, the domestication of animals has been central in the development of modern societies. Because of its importance for a range of disciplines – including archaeology, biology and the humanities – domestication has been studied extensively. This chapter reviews how the field of paleogenomics has revolutionised, and will continue to revolutionise, our understanding of animal domestication. We discuss how the recovery of ancient DNA from archaeological remains is allowing researchers to overcome inherent shortcomings arising from the analysis of modern DNA alone. In particular, we show how DNA, extracted from ancient substrates, has proven to be a crucial source of information to reconstruct the geographic and temporal origin of domestic species. We also discuss how ancient DNA is being used by geneticists and archaeologists to directly observe evolutionary changes linked to artificial and natural selection to generate a richer understanding of this fascinating process. |
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Springer International Publishing |
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Lindqvist, C.; Rajora, O.P. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ Irving-Pease2019 |
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6583 |
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Pongrácz, P.; Miklósi, Á.; Vida, V.; Csányi, V. |
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The pet dogs ability for learning from a human demonstrator in a detour task is independent from the breed and age |
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2005 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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90 |
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309-323 |
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Dog; Breed differences; Social learning |
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There are many indications and much practical knowledge about the different tasks which various breeds of dogs are selected for. Correspondingly these different breeds are known to possess different physical and mental abilities. We hypothesized that commonly kept breeds will show differences in their problem solving ability in a detour task around a V-shaped fence, and also, that breed differences will affect their learning ability from a human demonstrator, who demonstrates a detour around the fence. Subjects were recruited in Hungarian pet dog schools. We compared the results of the 10 most common breeds in our sample when they were tested in the detour task without human demonstration. There was no significant difference between the latencies of detour, however, there was a trend that German Shepherd dogs were the quickest and Giant Schnauzers were the slowest in this test. For testing the social learning ability of dogs we formed three breed groups (“utility”, “shepherd” and “hunting”). There were no significant differences between these, all the breed groups learned equally well from the human demonstrator. However, we found that dogs belonging to the “shepherd” group looked back more frequently to their owner than the dogs in the “hunting” group. Further, we have found that the age of pet dogs did not affect their social learning ability in the detour task. Our results showed that the pet status of a dog has probably a stronger effect on its cognitive performance and human related behaviour than its age or breed. These results emphasize that socialization and common activities with the dog might overcome the possible breed differences, if we give the dogs common problem solving, or social learning tasks. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6584 |
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Sigurjónsdóttir, H.; Haraldsson, H. |
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Significance of Group Composition for the Welfare of Pastured Horses |
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2018 |
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Animals |
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Animals |
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9 |
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14 |
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horse welfare; aggression; allogrooming; pastured horses; Icelandic horse |
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Simple Summary
Because of their social nature, horses need to have plenty of opportunities to interact with others to establish bonds and learn from their elders. Comparison of social behaviour of 426 horses in 20 groups of Icelandic horses in pastures, showed that aggression was lowest where the group composition was like the natural system, i.e., with a stallion, mares and their young foals. In groups without a stallion, the presence of foals is also associated with low aggression. Stability of the group with respect to group composition is of great importance; the horses are less aggressive in the more stable groups. The highest aggression was found in groups of unfamiliar yearlings. The horses allogroomed more in groups with relatively more young horses, which suggests they are forming bonds. Later, they groom less but prefer certain individuals. Horse owners should all be aware of the importance of planning the composition of horse groups and to keep the membership as stable as possible in order to ensure good welfare.
Abstract
We explore how herd composition and management factors correlate with frequencies of social interactions in horse groups. Since the welfare of horses correlates with low aggression levels and social contact opportunities, information of this kind is important. The data are a collection of records of social interactions of 426 Icelandic horses in 20 groups of at least eight horses. The complexities and limitations of the data prohibit useful statistical modelling so the results are presented descriptively. Interesting and informative patterns emerge which can be of use both in management and in future studies. Of special interest are the low levels of agonistic behaviours in breeding groups where one stallion was present. The horses were less agonistic when in groups with young foals and where group membership was stable. Unfamiliar yearlings in peer groups were especially aggressive. Allogrooming was most frequent in groups with relatively more young horses and in unstable and small groups. Interestingly, the horses allogroomed more if they had few preferred allogrooming partners. The findings show that composition (age/sex) and stability of groups are of great importance with respect to aggression levels and opportunities for establishing bonds. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6585 |
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Rosati, A.G. |
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Foraging Cognition: Reviving the Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis |
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Journal Article |
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2017 |
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Trends in Cognitive Sciences |
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Trends in Cognitive Sciences |
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21 |
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9 |
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691-702 |
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What are the origins of intelligent behavior? The demands associated with living in complex social groups have been the favored explanation for the evolution of primate cognition in general and human cognition in particular. However, recent comparative research indicates that ecological variation can also shape cognitive abilities. I synthesize the emerging evidence that ?foraging cognition? ? skills used to exploit food resources, including spatial memory, decision-making, and inhibitory control ? varies adaptively across primates. These findings provide a new framework for the evolution of human cognition, given our species? dependence on costly, high-value food resources. Understanding the origins of the human mind will require an integrative theory accounting for how humans are unique in both our sociality and our ecology. |
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Elsevier |
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1364-6613 |
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doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2017.05.011 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6586 |
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Giljov, A.; Karenina, K. |
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Differential roles of the right and left brain hemispheres in the social interactions of a free-ranging ungulate |
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Journal Article |
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2019 |
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Behavioural Processes |
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Behav. Process. |
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168 |
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103959 |
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Laterality; Hemispheric specialization; Brain asymmetry; Eye preference; Ungulate; Bovid |
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Despite the abundant empirical evidence on lateralized social behaviours, a clear understanding of the relative roles of two brain hemispheres in social processing is still lacking. This study investigated visual lateralization in social interactions of free-ranging European bison (Bison bonasus). The bison were more likely to display aggressive responses (such as fight and side hit), when they viewed the conspecific with the right visual field, implicating the left brain hemisphere. In contrast, the responses associated with positive social interactions (female-to-calf bonding, calf-to-female approach, suckling) or aggression inhibition (fight termination) occurred more likely when the left visual field was in use, indicating the right hemisphere advantage. The results do not support either assumptions of right-hemisphere dominance for control of various social functions or hypotheses about simple positive (approach) versus negative (withdrawal) distinction between the hemispheric roles. The discrepancy between the studies suggests that in animals, the relative roles of the hemispheres in social processing may be determined by a fine balance of emotions and motivations associated with the particular social reaction difficult to categorize for a human investigator. Our findings highlight the involvement of both brain hemispheres in the control of social behaviour. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6587 |
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Leliveld, L.M.C. |
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From Science to Practice: A Review of Laterality Research on Ungulate Livestock |
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2019 |
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Symmetry |
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Symmetry |
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11 |
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9 |
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1157 |
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hemispheric asymmetries; farm animals; emotional processing; animal cognition; development; human-animal interactions; animal welfare |
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In functional laterality research, most ungulate livestock species have until recently been mainly overlooked. However, there are many scientific and practical benefits of studying laterality in ungulate livestock. As social, precocial and domestic species, they may offer insight into the mechanisms involved in the ontogeny and phylogeny of functional laterality and help to better understand the role of laterality in animal welfare. Until now, most studies on ungulate livestock have focused on motor laterality, but interest in other lateralized functions, e.g., cognition and emotions, is growing. Increasingly more studies are also focused on associations with age, sex, personality, health, stress, production and performance. Although the full potential of research on laterality in ungulate livestock is not yet exploited, findings have already shed new light on central issues in cognitive and emotional processing and laid the basis for potentially useful applications in future practice, e.g., stress reduction during human-animal interactions and improved assessments of health, production and welfare. Future research would benefit from further integration of basic laterality methodology (e.g., testing for individual preferences) and applied ethological approaches (e.g., established emotionality tests), which would not only improve our understanding of functional laterality but also benefit the assessment of animal welfare. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6588 |
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Amici, F.; Widdig, A.; Lehmann, J.; Majolo, B. |
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A meta-analysis of interindividual differences in innovation |
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2019 |
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Animal Behaviour |
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Anim. Behav. |
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155 |
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257-268 |
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age; bad competitor hypothesis; excess of energy hypothesis; innovation; interindividual differences; intraspecific variation; personality; rank; sex |
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The ability to innovate and the social transmission of innovations have played a central role in human evolution. However, innovation is also crucial for other animals, by allowing them to cope with novel socioecological challenges. Although innovation plays such a central role in animals' lives, we still do not know the conditions required for innovative behaviour to emerge. Here, we focused on interindividual differences in innovation by (1) extensively reviewing existing literature on innovative behaviour in animals and (2) quantitatively testing the different evolutionary hypotheses that have been proposed to explain interindividual variation in innovation propensity during foraging tasks. We ran a series of phylogenetically controlled mixed-effects meta-regression models to determine which hypotheses (if any) are supported by currently available empirical studies. Our analyses show that innovation is more common in individuals that are older and belong to the larger sex, but also in more neophilic and/or explorative individuals. Moreover, these effects change depending on the study setting (i.e. wild versus captive). Our results provide no clear support to the excess of energy or the bad competitor hypotheses and suggest that study setting and interindividual differences in traits related to personality are also important predictors of innovation. |
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0003-3472 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6589 |
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Bernauer, K.; Kollross, H.; Schuetz, A.; Farmer, K.; Krueger, K. |
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How do horses (Equus caballus) learn from observing human action? |
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2020 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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23 |
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1-9 |
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A previous study demonstrated that horses can learn socially from observing humans, but could not draw any conclusions about the social learning mechanisms. Here we develop this by showing horses four different human action sequences as demonstrations of how to press a button to open a feed box. We tested 68 horses aged between 3 and 12 years. 63 horses passed the habituation phase and were assigned either to the group Hand Demo (N = 13) for which a kneeling person used a hand to press the button, Head Demo (N = 13) for which a kneeling person used the head, Mixed Demo (N = 12) for which a squatting person used both head and hand, Foot Demo (N = 12) in which a standing person used a foot, or No Demo (N = 13) in which horses did not receive a demonstration. 44 horses reached the learning criterion of opening the feeder twenty times consecutively, 40 of these were 75% of the Demo group horses and four horses were 31% of the No Demo group horses. Horses not reaching the learning criterion approached the human experimenters more often than those who did. Significantly more horses used their head to press the button no matter which demonstration they received. However, in the Foot Demo group four horses consistently preferred to use a hoof and two switched between hoof and head use. After the Mixed Demo the horses' actions were more diverse. The results indicate that only a few horses copy behaviours when learning socially from humans. A few may learn through observational conditioning, as some appeared to adapt to demonstrated actions in the course of reaching the learning criterion. Most horses learn socially through enhancement, using humans to learn where, and which aspect of a mechanism has to be manipulated, and by applying individual trial and error learning to reach their goal. |
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1435-9456 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ Bernauer2019 |
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6590 |
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