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Bergmüller, R. (2010). Animal Personality and Behavioural Syndromes. In P. Kappeler (Ed.), Animal Behaviour – Evolution and Mechanisms (pp. 587–621). Heidelberg: Springer.
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Sherry, D. F., & Galef Jr, B. G. (1984). Cultural transmission without imitation: Milk bottle opening by birds. Anim. Behav., 32(3), 937–938.
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Neumann, C., Duboscq, J., Dubuc, C., Ginting, A., Irwan, A. M., Agil, M., et al. (2011). Assessing dominance hierarchies: validation and advantages of progressive evaluation with Elo-rating. Animal Behaviour, 82(4), 911–921.
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Williams, J. L., Friend, T. H., Nevill, C. H., & Archer, G. (2004). The efficacy of a secondary reinforcer (clicker) during acquisition and extinction of an operant task in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 88(3-4), 331–341.
Abstract: “Clicker training” is a popularly promoted training method based on operant conditioning with the use of a secondary reinforcer (the clicker). While this method draws from theories of learning and is used widely, there has been little scientific investigation of its efficacy. We used 60 horses, Equus callabus, and assigned each horse to one of six reinforcement protocols. The reinforcement protocols involved combinations of reinforcers administered (primary versus secondary plus primary), schedule of reinforcement (continuous versus variable ratio), and reinforcers applied during extinction (none or secondary). There were no differences (P>=0.11) between horses which received a secondary reinforcer (click) followed by the primary reinforcer (food) and those which received only the primary reinforcer (food) in the number of trials required to train the horses to touch their noses to a plastic cone (operant response). There also were no differences (P>=0.12) between horses which received the secondary reinforcer plus primary reinforcer and those which received only the primary reinforcer in regards to the number of trials to extinction. We conclude that there is no difference in the amount of training required to learn the operant task or in the task's resistance to extinction between horses that received a secondary reinforcer followed by a primary reinforcer versus horses which received only a primary reinforcer.
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Mason, W. A., & Hollis, J. H. (1962). Communication between young rhesus monkeys. Anim. Behav., 10(3-4), 211–221.
Abstract: 1. 1. The communication performance of 12 rhesus monkeys was investigated in a situation in which the rewards of both members of a pair of monkeys could not exceed chance levels unless the operator monkey responded to cues provided by the informant monkey which indicated the location of food. Each member of the pair was trained in both operator and informant roles in different phases of the experiment. Communication performance improved progressively to levels consistently above chance. However, communication learning appeared to be specific to the role in which the individual was trained, and when roles were reversed no evidence of transfer was obtained. Tests of foodsharing behaviour showed a substantial increase in the tendency to share food with the partner following communication training. This occurred however, only when the partner was the only social stimulus present; if another monkey was also present there was no evidence of preferential responses to the partner. In all phases of communication training, monkeys which were housed together performed more efficiently than did monkeys housed individually.2. 2. The acquisition of stimulus-producing responses was investigated by causing an opaque screen to remain in front of the informant unless the operator monkey pulled a vertical lever at the front of its restraining cage. Initially, operators responded immediately to the foodcarts, but with further testing there was a steady increase in the tendency to defer the response to the food-carts until the lever had been pulled, revealing the informant monkey.3. 3. Transfer of communication training was tested with new monkey informants, and with two inanimate stimuli, a mechanical puppet, and a stationary plaque. The latter two objects were placed behind the rewarded food-carts before each trial. There was clear evidence of positive transfer to each of these conditions, but marked differences among conditions were obtained. Performance with the monkeys averaged 76 per cent. correct, as compared with 62 and 40 per cent., with the puppet and the plaque, respectively.4. 4. To test the ability of trained operator monkeys to select the appropriate informant on the basis of behavioural cues, the communication situation was arranged so that two informant monkeys were present on all trials. However, on any trial only one of these informants could be rewarded, and the operator's rewards were contingent upon delivering food to this informant. Efficiency of discrimination began at approximately 45 per cent, (chance = 25 per cent. and improved progressively to levels above 75 per cent.
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Klingel, H. (1998). Observations on social organization and behaviour of African and Asiatic Wild Asses (Equus africanus and Equus hemionus). Appl Anim Behav Sci, 60(2), 103–113.
Abstract: 1This paper appears with kind permission of Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin and Hamburg. It was originally published in Z. Tierpsychol., 44, 323-331 (1977), ISSN 0044-3573/ASTM-Coden: ZETIAG.1
Abstract
African and Asiatic Wild Asses (Equus africanus and Equus hemionus) live in unstable groups or herds of variable composition. Some of the adult stallions are territorial in large territories in which they tolerate other ♂♂. The territorial ♂♂ are dominant over all their conspecifics
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Crowell-Davis, S. L., Houpt, K. A., & Carini, C. M. (1986). Mutual grooming and nearest-neighbor relationships among foals of Equus caballus. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 15(2), 113–123.
Abstract: A 3-year study was carried out on the developmental behavior of foals from birth to 24 weeks of age and the behavior of mares living with foals. Mutual-grooming partners of foals were primarily other foals. The peak frequency of mutual grooming occurred during Weeks 9-12, when fillies mutual-groomed 1.6 times h-1 and colts mutual-groomed 0.9 times h-1. Fillies mutual-groomed more frequently than colts (P < 0.025). Fillies mutual-groomed randomly with colts and other fillies (P < 0.05), whereas colts mutual-groomed almost exclusively with fillies (P = 0.03). At all ages studied, if a foal's nearest neighbor was not its mother, it was more likely to be another foal than would be expected if the foal was associating randomly with non-mother ponies. Fillies were more likely than expected to have a filly rather than a colt as their nearest neighbor (P = 0.01). Thus, during their first few months of life, the foals studied exhibited patterns of behavior which were consistent with the development of the usual social milieu of unmanaged adults, in which several mares form a cohesive herd with one or more stallions associating with them.
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Anderson, M. K., Friend, T. H., Evans, J. W., & Bushong, D. M. (1999). Behavioral assessment of horses in therapeutic riding programs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 63(1), 11–24.
Abstract: A behavioral assessment of horses who were being used and not used in therapeutic riding programs was conducted to help determine useful methods of selecting horses for use in therapeutic riding programs. A total of 103 horses (76 horses from five therapeutic riding centers and 27 non-therapeutic riding horses from four sites) were used. Temperament survey for each horse were completed by three riding instructors at each therapeutic riding center or by the individual most knowledgeable about the horse at the other sites. Twenty personality traits from the survey were used to quantify temperament. Concentrations of plasma cortisol, norepinephrine and epinephrine were also measured in each horse. A reactivity test was then conducted which involved introducing three novel stimuli: a walking and vocalizing toy pig placed on a cardboard surface in front of the horse for 20 s; popping a balloon near the horse's flank area; and suddenly opening an umbrella and holding it open in front of the horse for 20 s. Reactions (expressions, vocalizations and movement) to each of the stimuli were scored and used to calculate an average reactivity score for each horse. The therapeutic riding instructors did not often agree on the temperament of their center's horses. The personality trait ratings made by the therapeutic riding instructors at each center were on average significantly correlated (P<0.01, r>0.52) for only 37.8% of the horses for any two instructors and 7.8% for three instructors. No significant correlations were found between temperament, reactivity, and the hormone concentrations (r<0.19), but regression analysis indicated a possibility of predicting temperament from the reactivity score and hormone concentrations (P<0.08). There was also a tendency for relationships between extremes in temperament (desirable vs. undesirable) and the hormone concentrations (P<0.09), and between extremes in reactivity (low vs. high) and the hormone concentrations (P=0.08). The difference in ratings among riding instructors indicates a need for more collaboration between instructors when evaluating horse temperament. This study also indicates that it was very difficult to objectively determine the suitability of horses for therapeutic riding programs regarding their temperament and reactivity, probably because other traits (e.g., smoothness of gait) are also considered very important.
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Petherick, J. C., & Rutter, S. M. (1990). Quantifying motivation using a computer-controlled push-door. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 27(1), 159–167.
Abstract: A computer-controlled push-door system was designed and tested as a method for measuring motivation. Eleven domestic hens were trained to use the push-door to gain access to food. They were deprived of food for 12 h or 43 h on 12 occasions and the push-door was used to measure the amount of “work” (measured as force × time) that they performed to gain access to a food reward. When deprived of food for 12 h the hens took significantly longer (P<0.01) to reach the required threshold of work, than when deprived for 43 h. This difference arose from the amount of time that the hens spent not pushing at the door. The problems encountered with this system and such an approach to measuring motivation are discussed.
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Boyd, L., & Bandi, N. (2002). Reintroduction of takhi, Equus ferus przewalskii, to Hustai National Park, Mongolia: time budget and synchrony of activity pre- and post-release. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 78(2-4), 87–102.
Abstract: A harem of takhi (Equus ferus przewalskii) was observed during introduction to the Hustain Nuruu Steppe Reserve of Mongolia. The goals were to examine whether the harem exhibited significant behavioural synchrony, whether release had an effect on time budget, and what the implications might be regarding acclimatisation to the wild. Behaviours were scan sampled every 10 min between the hours of 06:00 and 22:00, twice before release, twice immediately after release, and twice 2 years after reintroduction. Time budgets were constructed from these data. Considerable behavioural synchrony was evidenced both before and after release. Crepuscular grazing and midday resting were typical, regardless of the date relative to release. Upon release, the amount of time spent moving doubled for all age classes. It is suggested that this increase resulted from exploration. The amount of time spent grazing and standing remained unchanged; the increased amount of time spent moving came at the expense of resting. Two years later, the horses still spent more time moving than when captive. Somewhat less time was spent grazing, although the difference was not significant. More time was spent resting in 1996 than immediately after release. These time budgets provide evidence of successful acclimatisation to the wild. Trekking between favoured sites could account for the persistent increase in time spent moving, with concomitantly less time needed to meet nutritional needs by grazing and more time available for resting. Housing captive takhi in large enclosures is evidently insufficient to permit the amount of movement exhibited by this wild harem. The time budget of the 1- and 2-year olds was more similar to that of adults than foals, indicating approaching adulthood. That 1- and 2-year olds were nursed, without loss of body condition by the dam, provided additional evidence that the takhi achieved excellent nutritional status in the wild.
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