Abstract: The assessment of cognitive functions in rodents represents a critical experimental variable in many research fields, ranging from the basic cognitive neurosciences to psychopharmacology and neurotoxicology. The increasing use of animal behavioral tests as 'assays' for the assessment of effects on learning and memory has resulted in a considerable heterogeneity of data, particularly in the field of behavioral and psycho pharmacology. The limited predictive validity of changes in behavioral performance observed in standard animal tests of learning and memory indicates that a renewed effort to scrutinize the validity of these tests is warranted. In humans, levels of processing (effortful vs. automatic) and categories of information (procedural vs. episodic/declarative) are important variables of cognitive operations. The design of tasks that assess the recall of 'episodic' or 'declarative' information appears to represent a particular challenge for research using laboratory rodents. For example, the hypothesis that changes in inspection time for a previously encountered place or object are based on the recall of declarative/episodic information requires substantiation. In order to generalize findings on the effects of neuronal or pharmacological manipulations on learning and memory, obtained from one species and one task, to other species and other tasks, the mediating role of important sets of variables which influence learning and memory (e.g. attentional, affective) needs to be determined. Similar to the view that a neuronal manipulation (e.g. a lesion) represents a theory of the condition modeled (e.g. a degenerative disorder), an animal behavioral task represents a theory of the behavioral/cognitive process of interest. Therefore, the test of hypotheses regarding the validity of procedures used to assess cognitive functions in animals is an inherent part of the research process.

Abstract: The aim of was to compare of biochemical and haematological parameters in the aging process in a cold-blooded mares breed Norik Murá&#328; type. 27 of breeding mares Norik Murá&#328; type without pathological symptoms in horse breeding farm in Dobšiná (Slovakia) were used in this study. Mares were divided by age into four groups: A (n = 7, 5-8 years), B (n = 6, 9-15), C (n = 7, 16-20) and D (n = 7, 21-23). Blood samples were collected from v. jugularis externa by needles (Vacutainer ® Precision Glide ™, BD Diagnostics, USA) in serum tubes (Serum-SST TM II Advance, BD Diagnostics, USA) in the morning hours, kept at 8 to 10 °C and analyzed as soon as possible. Biochemical parameters of blood serum like aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine (CREA), urea (Urea), albumin (ALB) and glucose (Glu) were analyzed using biochemical analyzer Cobas c 111 (Roche, Switzerland). Reference values were determined by Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry and Haematology (UVMF, Košice). Were used a same nutrition for all mares. The results were statistically processed using Student\'s t-test. The concentrations of AST decreased in mares with aging (A=5.69 ± 1.13 &#956;kat/l; B=5.36 ± 0.9 &#956;kat/l; C=5.13 ± 1.1 &#956;kat/l), but in the oldest mares (D=5.88 ± 1.37 &#956;kat/l). were higher than the youngest age group A. Were found no significant differences between groups (P> 0,05). The concentrations of ALP increased with age (A=2.47 ± 0.3 &#956;kat/l; C=2.66 ± 0.43 &#956;kat/l; D=2.77 ± 1.17 &#956;kat/l), but in the middle age mares were found (B= 2;44 ± 0.46 &#956;kat/l) (P> 0,05). Crea concentrations had a decreasing trend (A=139.1 ± 37.49 &#956;mol/l; B=118.45 ± 23.18 &#956;mol/l; C=119.31 ± 19.85 &#956;mol/l; D=111.59 ± 21.08 &#956;mol/l) (P> 0,05). Urea increased with age (A=7.88 ± 2.04 mmol/l, B= 7.97 ± 0.8 mmol/l, D= 8.29 ± 1.23 mmol/l) except C (7.76 ± 0.85 mmol/l) (P> 0,05). ALB decreased with age (A=31.34 ± 3.24 g/l; B=30.03 ± 2.41 g/l; C=30±2.77 g/l; D=29.67± 2.85 g/l) (P> 0,05). Also glucose concentrations were lower in older mares (A=4.51 ± 0.99 mmol/l; B=4.69 ± 1.05 mmol/l; C= 4.69 ± 1.05 mmol/l; D =4.03 ± 0.64 mmol/l) (P> 0,05). Significantly differences were found in leukocytes between group A =2,76±1,82 g/l versus groups B=6,74±0,56 g/l, C =6,46±1,14 g/l and D =6,13±1,61 g/l (P<0.05), also in neutrophiles between A=2,06±1,26 109/l versus B= 3,47±1,17 109/l, C =3,12±0,9 109/l and D =2,88±0,71 109/l (P<0.05). Were found significantly differences in eosinophiles between group A =0,06±0,09 109/l versus groups B=0,21±0,17 109/l, C=0,19±0,1 109/l and D=0,12±0,11 109/l (P<0.05), also in lymphocytes between A=4,59±1,59109/l versus B =2,95±1,04109/l, C=2,99±1,14109/l and D=2,65±1,87109/l (P<0.05). This research evaluated selected biochemical and haematological parameters of breed mares Norik Murá&#328; type of different ages. We found that age affects these indices in mares Norik Murá&#328; type. Data from this study may enhance our understanding of the biochemical parameters in this species, allowing a veterinarian to fix the interpretation of laboratory data and give these animals the appropriate care. This study was supported by grant from the Ministry of Education VEGA 1/0498/12 of the Slovak Republic.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to show that the motion pattern of a well-ridden horse varies less than the motion pattern of an unridden horse. In order to do so, we recorded the motion of two markers, one attached to the dorsal spinous processus of lumbar vertebra L4, the other to the right fore hoof. In total, we measured 21 horses in trot, ridden and unridden, with a fitting and with a non-fitting saddle. After breaking down the entire time series of the three-dimensional motion of the markers into their respective motion cycles, we computed a measure of motion pattern variability for the motion as well as for the derivatives (velocity and acceleration) along each of the three principal dimensions. Two of six variables (velocity and acceleration in the forward direction) displayed a significant discrimination between the ridden and the unridden case, and demonstrated the beneficial effect of a rider on the horse's motion pattern variability. Saddle fit was shown to have also an influence on motion variability: variability of two variables (velocity and of acceleration in forward direction) was significantly lower with a fitting saddle compared to a non-fitting saddle, a third variable (acceleration in the transversal direction) showed a significant difference also. This new method offers an objective evaluation of saddle fit, and a sensitive assessment of the quality of the rider in the moving horse.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the use of items intended to provide enrichment during turnout, both for individual and group kept horses in an attempt to reduce the amount of passive behaviours. The study was divided into two parts, where study 1 involved eight horses rotated through eight individual paddocks, each containing one of seven enrichment items and one paddock being kept without item, functioning as a control. The horses' item-directed behaviours; passive behaviours or other non-item related activities were scored using instantaneous sampling, every minute for 1h at the beginning and the end of the turnout period. Study 2 involved six horse groups (3-6 horses) and the same scoring methods and ethogram as in study 1. The four items that the horses interacted the most with during study 1 (straw STRA, ball filled with concentrates CBALL, branches BRAN and scratching pole POLE) are investigated in study 2. In addition, the amount of social interactions was recorded. Both horses kept individually (P<0.05) and in groups (P<0.0001) performed significantly more item-directed behaviours towards edible items like STRA and CBALL than other objects. There was, however, no overall relation between the numbers of item-directed behaviours and the number of passive behaviours observed, indicating that the enrichment items did not alone reduce the amount of passive behaviours during turnout periods. Such a reduction was, however, only apparent when horses spent more time eating green leaves growing on the paddock surface (R=-0.97 study 1, R=-0.67 study 2, P<0.0001). Access to STRA in group kept horses also seemed to reduce the amount of agonistic behaviours (P<0.0001). In conclusion, if grass is not available in paddocks, the provision of roughage reduces the amount of passive behaviours in singly kept horses and it also reduces the risk of agonistic interactions between horses kept in group.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate social behaviour in differently reared stallions in their respective environments; one group of stallions was reared under typical domestic conditions whereas the other group was reared and lives under natural conditions. The domestic group consisted of 19, 2-year-old stallions (Equus caballus), which were all weaned at 4 months of age and experienced either individual or group housing facilities before being pastured with the other similarly aged stallions. The natural living and mixed age group of Przewalski stallions (E. przewalskii) consisted of 13 stallions, most of which were juveniles (n=11, <=4 years; n=2, >9 years). The domestic group was studied in a 4-ha enclosure at the Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences and the Przewalski group under free-ranging conditions in a 75-ha enclosure in the Askania Nova Biosphere Reserve, Ukraine. Behavioural data was collected during 168 h of direct observation. The occurrence of 14 types of social interactions was recorded and group spacing behaviour was studied using nearest neighbour recordings. In spite of very different environments, reflecting domestic and natural rearing conditions, many similarities in behaviour was found. Play and play fight behaviour was very similar in the two stallion groups. Quantitative differences were found in social grooming since Przewalski stallions groomed more frequently (P=0.004), and in investigative behaviours, since domestic stallions showed more nasal (P=0.005) and body sniffing (P<0.001), whereas Przewalski stallions directed more sniffing towards the genital region (P<0.001). These differences may, however, be attributed to environmental factors and in the period of time the stallions were together prior to the study period. Quantitative differences appeared in some agonistic behaviours (kick threat, P<0.001; and kick, P<0.001), but data do not support earlier findings of Przewalski horses being significantly more aggressive than domestic horses. In general, Przewalski stallions engaged in more social interactions, and they showed less group spacing, i.e. maintained a significantly shorter distance between neighbours (P<0.001). The study indicates that also domestic horses, which have been reared under typical domestic conditions and allowed a period on pasture, show social behaviour, which is very similar to that shown by their non-domestic relatives.