|
|
Morton, D. B. (2000). Self-consciousness and animal suffering. Biologist (London), 47(2), 77–80.
Abstract: Animals with relatively highly developed brains are likely to experience some degree of self-awareness and the ability to think. As well as being interesting in its own right, self-consciousness matters from an ethical point of view, since it can give rise to forms of suffering above and beyond the immediate physical sensations of pain or distress. This article surveys the evidence for animal self-consciousness and its implications for animal welfare.
|
|
|
|
Proudman, C., Pinchbeck, G., Clegg, P., & French, N. (2004). Equine welfare: risk of horses falling in the Grand National. Nature, 428(6981), 385–386.
Abstract: As in other competitive sports, the famous Grand National steeplechase, which is held at Aintree in the United Kingdom and is watched by 600 million people worldwide, sometimes results in injury. By analysing data from the past 15 Grand National races (consisting of 560 starts by horses), we are able to identify several factors that are significantly associated with failure to complete the race: no previous experience of the course and its unique obstacles, unfavourable ground conditions (too soft or too hard), a large number of runners, and the length of the odds ('starting price'). We also find that there is an increased risk of falling at the first fence and at the jump known as Becher's Brook, which has a ditch on the landing side. Our findings indicate ways in which the Grand National could be made safer for horses and illustrate how epidemiological analysis might contribute to preventing injury in competitive sport.
|
|
|
|
Stomp, M., d'Ingeo, S., Henry, S., Cousillas, H., & Hausberger, M. (2021). Brain activity reflects (chronic) welfare state: Evidence from individual electroencephalography profiles in an animal model. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 236, 105271.
Abstract: Assessing the animal welfare state is a challenge given the subjective individual cognitive and emotional processing involved. Electroencephalography (EEG) spectrum analysis has proved an ecologically valid recording situation to assess the link between brain processes and affective or cognitive states in humans: a higher slow wave/fast wave ratio has been associated with a positive internal state. In particular, a high production of theta power (3-8 Hz) has been related to positive emotions. On the other hand, it has been hypothesized that a left hemisphere (LH) dominance may be associated with a better welfare state. Here, we test the hypothesis that individual differences in the resting-state quantitative EEG power spectrum of adult horses (N = 18) and its lateralization pattern may reflect individual subjective perception of their conditions of life and welfare state. The results show clear individual differences in the proportions of the different waves and their inter-hemispheric distribution. Three different EEG power spectrum profiles were highlighted, from a bilateral predominance of theta waves in horses in a more positive welfare state to a bilateral predominance of beta waves in horses with clear expressions of compromised welfare. Interestingly, particular correlations were found between wave power activity and welfare parameters. We found a negative correlation between the number of stereotypic behaviours per hour and the median proportion of theta waves in the left hemisphere. and between the overall state (total chronic stress score) of welfare and gamma production in the right hemisphere (RH). These findings go along the hypothesis of a particular involvement of the left hemisphere for positive processing and of the right hemisphere for negative processing. However, the pattern of laterality did not appear as the most important feature here as both extreme clusters in terms of welfare showed bilateral predominance of one wave type. It is possible that hemispheric specialization makes more sense during acute emotion-inducing conditions rather than in this resting-state context (i.e. in absence of any high emotion-inducing stimulation), although the opposition gamma versus theta waves between both hemispheres in the horses with an intermediate welfare state is noticeable and intriguing. It seems that bilateral but also LH theta activity is a promising neurophysiological marker of good welfare in horses, while a bilateral or RH high production of gamma waves should alert about potential welfare alterations. Quantitative resting-state EEG power spectrum appears as a highly promising tool for exploring the brain processes involved in the subjective perception of chronic welfare, as a useful complementary tool for welfare assessment.
|
|
|
|
Stomp, M., d'Ingeo, S., Henry, S., Cousillas, H., & Hausberger, M. (2021). Brain activity reflects (chronic) welfare state: Evidence from individual electroencephalography profiles in an animal model. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 236, 105271.
Abstract: Assessing the animal welfare state is a challenge given the subjective individual cognitive and emotional processing involved. Electroencephalography (EEG) spectrum analysis has proved an ecologically valid recording situation to assess the link between brain processes and affective or cognitive states in humans: a higher slow wave/fast wave ratio has been associated with a positive internal state. In particular, a high production of theta power (3-8 Hz) has been related to positive emotions. On the other hand, it has been hypothesized that a left hemisphere (LH) dominance may be associated with a better welfare state. Here, we test the hypothesis that individual differences in the resting-state quantitative EEG power spectrum of adult horses (N = 18) and its lateralization pattern may reflect individual subjective perception of their conditions of life and welfare state. The results show clear individual differences in the proportions of the different waves and their inter-hemispheric distribution. Three different EEG power spectrum profiles were highlighted, from a bilateral predominance of theta waves in horses in a more positive welfare state to a bilateral predominance of beta waves in horses with clear expressions of compromised welfare. Interestingly, particular correlations were found between wave power activity and welfare parameters. We found a negative correlation between the number of stereotypic behaviours per hour and the median proportion of theta waves in the left hemisphere. and between the overall state (total chronic stress score) of welfare and gamma production in the right hemisphere (RH). These findings go along the hypothesis of a particular involvement of the left hemisphere for positive processing and of the right hemisphere for negative processing. However, the pattern of laterality did not appear as the most important feature here as both extreme clusters in terms of welfare showed bilateral predominance of one wave type. It is possible that hemispheric specialization makes more sense during acute emotion-inducing conditions rather than in this resting-state context (i.e. in absence of any high emotion-inducing stimulation), although the opposition gamma versus theta waves between both hemispheres in the horses with an intermediate welfare state is noticeable and intriguing. It seems that bilateral but also LH theta activity is a promising neurophysiological marker of good welfare in horses, while a bilateral or RH high production of gamma waves should alert about potential welfare alterations. Quantitative resting-state EEG power spectrum appears as a highly promising tool for exploring the brain processes involved in the subjective perception of chronic welfare, as a useful complementary tool for welfare assessment.
|
|
|
|
Kampmann, S., Hampson, B. A., & Pollitt, C. C. (2013). Population dynamics of feral horses (Equus caballus) following above-average rainfall in a semi-arid environment of Australia. Aust Vet J, 91(11), 482–487.
Abstract: Background Recent record rainfall in much of semi-arid Central Australia is the most likely reason for a feral horse population increase in excess of normal. Uncontrolled numbers of feral horses have habitat degradation and animal welfare implications. Objectives The aims of this study were to investigate the social structure of feral horses and assess their population growth rate following unseasonably high rainfall. Methods The study area was 4000 km2 of unmanaged, semi-arid country in Central Australia (latitude 24.50°S, longitude 132.10°E). Horses were identified by descriptive features from ground searches, movement-activated cameras and ‘hides’ positioned at key water holes. Wherever possible, sex and age categories were documented. Population growth rate was estimated by the number of foals divided by the number of horses older than 1 year in the observed population. Results A total of 1424 horses were identified and categorised, of which 335 were foals born within the current year. Only 123 juveniles were identified. Of the adult horses, 53.4% were male and 46.6% were female and this differed from parity (P = 0.04). Of the mares, 71.9% had a foal at foot and the population growth rate was 29.5%. Conclusions With a sustained population growth rate of 29.5%, this population of feral horses will more than double within 3 years. The high population increase will likely have a detrimental effect on native fauna and flora and the fragile, semi-arid ecosystems of Central Australia. After a period of high rainfall and plentiful resources, ‘normal’ drought conditions will return and many feral horses will starve and die as they compete for limited resources.
|
|
|
|
Young, T., Creighton, E., Smith, T., & Hosie, C. (2012). A novel scale of behavioural indicators of stress for use with domestic horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 140(1–2), 33–43.
Abstract: Behaviour scores (BS) offer non-invasive, objective and easy to use ways of assessing welfare in animals. Their development has, however, largely focused on behavioural reactions to stressful events (often induced), and little use of physiological measures has been made to underpin and validate the behavioural measures. This study aimed to develop a physiologically validated scale of behavioural indicators of stress for the purpose of welfare assessment in stabled domestic horses. To achieve this, behavioural and physiological data were collected from 32 horses that underwent routine husbandry procedures. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the behavioural and physiological data revealed three meaningful components that were used as the basis of the scale. Analysis of video clips of the horses’ responses to the husbandry procedures was undertaken by a panel of equestrian industry professionals using a free choice profiling (FCP) methodology. These results were added to the scale along with key definitions from relevant literature. Salivary cortisol levels were significantly correlated with the BS confirming the scale was meaningful and reflected physiological stress. The scale offers an easy to use ‘tool’ for rapid, reliable non-invasive welfare assessment in horses, and reduces the need for potentially invasive physiological measures.
|
|
|
|
Becker-Birck, M., Schmidt, A., Wulf, M., Aurich, J., von der Wense, A., Möstl, E., et al. (2013). Cortisol release, heart rate and heart rate variability, and superficial body temperature, in horses lunged either with hyperflexion of the neck or with an extended head and neck position. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 97(2), 322–330.
Abstract: Bringing the head and neck of ridden horses into a position of hyperflexion is widely used in equestrian sports. In our study, the hypothesis was tested that hyperflexion is an acute stressor for horses. Salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV) and superficial body temperature were determined in horses (n = 16) lunged on two subsequent days. The head and neck of the horse was fixed with side reins in a position allowing forward extension on day A and fixed in hyperflexion on day B. The order of treatments alternated between horses. In response to lunging, cortisol concentration increased (day A from 0.73 ± 0.06 to 1.41 ± 0.13 ng/ml, p < 0.001; day B from 0.68 ± 0.07 to 1.38 ± 0.13 ng/ml, p < 0.001) but did not differ between days A and B. Beat-to-beat (RR) interval decreased in response to lunging on both days. HRV variables standard deviation of RR interval (SDRR) and RMSSD (root mean square of successive RR differences) decreased (p < 0.001) but did not differ between days. In the cranial region of the neck, the difference between maximum and minimum temperature was increased in hyperflexion (p < 0.01). In conclusion, physiological parameters do not indicate an acute stress response to hyperflexion of the head alone in horses lunged at moderate speed and not touched with the whip. However, if hyperflexion is combined with active intervention of a rider, a stressful experience for the horse cannot be excluded.
|
|
|
|
McGreevy, P. D., & McLean, A. N. (2009). Punishment in horse-training and the concept of ethical equitation. J. Vet. Behav., 4(5), 193–197.
Abstract: By definition, punishment makes a response less likely in the future. Because horses are largely trained by negative reinforcement, they are susceptible to inadvertent punishment. Delays in the release of pressure can make desirable responses less likely and thus punish them. This study examines the correct use of negative reinforcement and identifies a continuum between poorly timed negative reinforcement and punishment. It explores some of the problems of non-contingent punishment and the prospect of learned helplessness and experimental neurosis. It concludes by introducing the concept of ethical equitation.
|
|
|
|
Zucca, P., Cerri, F., Carluccio, A., & Baciadonna, L. (). Space availability influence laterality in donkeys (Equus asinus). Behav. Process., In Press, Uncorrected Proof.
Abstract: Cerebral lateralization is the portioning of the cognitive functions between the two cerebral hemispheres. Several factors, like embryological manipulations, light exposure, health conditions, sex and age can influence the left-right brain asymmetries and contribute to increasing the variability in the strength and direction of laterality within most species. We investigated the influence of an environmental constraint, namely space availability, as a new source of variation on laterality in an adult vertebrate model, the donkey. In a baseline condition we tested whether donkeys show a motor lateralization bias at population level, while in an experimental condition we manipulated space availability to verify if a reduction in this parameter could represent a new source of variation in laterality. Results show that donkeys are lateralized at population level with a strong bias to standing with the right forelimb advanced over the left and that a reduction of space availability is an important source of variation in the laterality strength and direction within this species. The comparative analysis of the environmental and developmental factors that give origin to neural and behavioural laterality in animal models will be very important for a better understanding of the evolutionary origin of such multifaceted phenomenon.
|
|
|
|
Nagy, K., Bodó, G., Bárdos, G., & Harnos, A. (2008). Is modified Forssell"s operation superior to cribbing collar in preventing crib-biting in horses? In IESM 2008.
Abstract: Crib-biting (wind-sucking) might be a coping response of the horses to the challenges of
uncontrolled environmental events. Prevention of this stereotypic behaviour evokes
physiological responses consistent with increased stress. Reducing the incidence of cribbiting,
however, is important in order to prevent undesirable physical and behavioural
consequences (tooth erosion, altered gut function, gastric inflammation/ulceration, colic, etc.).
Common treatment of crib-biting is the application of a cribbing collar, which limits the
flexion of the neck making this stereotypic movement uncomfortable and difficult. Another
method, the modified Forssell"s operation, is becoming more and more popular amongst the
horse owners. It is based on the removal of the muscles used in crib-biting (m.omohyoideus,
m.sternohyoideus, m.sternothyrohyoideus) and the ventral branches of the spinal accessory
nerves. Surveys on the success of this surgical procedure have revealed inconsistent results,
and, contrary to the cribbing collar, its effect on the stress level have not been studied either.
The aim of our study was to determine whether the modified Forssell"s procedure is superior
to the cribbing collar treatment.
Differences in stress management was tested by a crib-biting provoking test, in which
surgically treated horses, crib-biting horses, crib-biting horses with cribbing collar, and
normal horses (those showing no stereotypies), altogether 56 horses were compared. In this
test, a food bucket had been placed out of the reach of the animal, from which titbits were
given 3 times. Behaviour and heart rate variability (HRV) of the horses were recorded and
analysed throughout the test. Hypotheses were tested by linear mixed model.
According to our results, both prevention methods (collar or surgery) inhibited crib-biting
successfully though not totally. Regarding behaviour and heart rate variability, horses
prevented from crib-biting (by collar or surgery) differed significantly from crib-biting and
normal horses but not from each other.
Normal horses were usually trying to reach the food-bucket while present and were standing
still afterwards, whereas the other three groups had not really made efforts to reach the
bucket, spent less time with resting, and performed or tried crib-biting. During the stress-test,
normal and crib-biting horses had shown good stress-adaptation to the challenge since their
HRV, after an initial increase, returned to the basal value by the end. On the contrary, HRV of
the two prevented groups remained elevated and showed large oscillations throughout. They
had not found a successful coping behaviour either.
Our results suggest that since prevention may significantly increase distress, the treatment in
itself, without changing the motivation of the horse to perform the replacement behaviour – it
seems to be unsatisfactory and insufficient. After prevention the motivation of the horse to
perform crib-biting should be addressed. In addition, considering that prevention by collar and
surgery had not resulted in any significant behavioural or physiological differences, the
superiority of the modified Forssell"s procedure might be questioned. However, the surgery
might be recommended if treatment with collar is ineffective.
|
|
