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Author |
Clayton, H.M.; Lanovaz, J.L.; Schamhardt, H.C.; van Wessum, R. |
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Title |
The effects of a rider's mass on ground reaction forces and fetlock kinematics at the trot |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1999 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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Volume |
30 |
Issue |
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Pages |
218-221 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Body Weight; Computer Simulation; Gait/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; Stress, Mechanical; Weight-Bearing/*physiology |
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Abstract  |
Ground reaction force (GRF) measurements are often normalised to body mass to facilitate inter-individual comparisons. The objective of this study was to explore the effect of a rider on the GRFs and fetlock joint kinematics of trotting horses. The subjects were 5 dressage-trained horses and 3 experienced dressage riders. Ground reaction force measurements and sagittal view videotapes were recorded as the horses trotted at the same velocity in hand (3.49 +/- 0.52 m/s) and with a rider (3.49 +/- 0.46 m/s). Data were time-normalised to stance duration. Ground reaction force measurements were expressed in absolute terms and normalised to the system mass (horse or horse plus rider). All the horses showed changes in the same direction when comparing the ridden condition with the in-hand condition. There was an increase in the absolute peak vertical GRFs of the fore- and hindlimbs with a rider. However, the mass-normalised peak vertical GRFs were lower for the ridden condition, with the peak occurring later in the forelimbs and earlier in the hindlimbs compared with the inhand condition. Maximal fetlock angle and its time of occurrence were similar for the 2 conditions, but the fore fetlock joint was more extended during the later part of the stance phase in ridden horses. The presence of a rider appeared to affect the GRFs and fetlock joint kinematics differently in the fore- and hindlimbs, and the ridden horse did not seem to be equivalent to a proportionately larger horse. This should be considered when normalising for body mass in studies comparing horses in hand and ridden horses. |
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Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824-1314, USA |
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PMID:10659255 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3733 |
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Author |
Stadler, P.; Rewel, A.; Deegen, E. |
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Title |
[M-mode echocardiography in dressage horses, class S jumping horses and untrained horses] |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1993 |
Publication |
Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin. Reihe A |
Abbreviated Journal |
Zentralbl Veterinarmed A |
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Volume |
40 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
292-306 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Echocardiography/*veterinary; Female; Heart Septum/ultrasonography; Heart Ventricles/ultrasonography; Horses/*anatomy & histology; Male; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Reference Values |
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Abstract |
Heart structures of 45 warmblooded horses were measured by M-mode-echocardiography. The current training level of 15 dressage horses (group I) and 15 show-jumping horses (group II) was category “S”. In the third group were 15 untrained horses. Four standardized transducer positions were determined for the m-mode echobeam, calibrated according to the two-dimensional real time technique. End systolic and end diastolic diameters of left ventricle, right ventricle, aortic root, interventricular septum and left ventricular wall, as well as motion pattern of heart wall, mitral valve and aortic valve of all horses were measured. The dressage horses showed a significant thickening of interventricular septum and left-ventricular wall compared with the show-jumping horses and the untrained horses. The end diastolic left ventricle diameter of the show-jumping horses was significantly larger than in the other groups. Compared to the untrained horses the show-jumping horses showed a significantly larger end systolic left ventricular wall diameter measured at the level of papillary muscle. It can be concluded, that an increase in heart mass in category “S” sport horses is attributed to their level of training. |
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Klinik fur Pferde der Tierarztlichen Hochschule Hannover |
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German |
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Die M-mode-Echokardiographie bei S-Dressur-, S-Springpferden und bei untrainierten Pferden |
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0514-7158 |
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PMID:8342361 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3749 |
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Author |
Verheyen, K.; Price, J.; Lanyon, L.; Wood, J. |
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Title |
Exercise distance and speed affect the risk of fracture in racehorses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Bone |
Abbreviated Journal |
Bone |
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39 |
Issue |
6 |
Pages |
1322-1330 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Case-Control Studies; Cohort Studies; England; Exertion; Female; Fractures, Bone/etiology/*veterinary; Horse Diseases/*etiology; Horses/*injuries; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/adverse effects/methods; Poisson Distribution; Prospective Studies; Regression Analysis; Risk Factors; Running/injuries/physiology |
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In order to gain insight into those training regimens that can minimise the risk of fracture in athletic populations, we conducted a large epidemiological study in racehorses. Thoroughbred racehorses provide a suitable model for studying fracture development and exercise-related risk factors in physically active populations. They represent a homogeneous population, undertaking intensive exercise programmes that are sufficiently heterogeneous to determine those factors that influence injury risk. Daily exercise information was recorded for a cohort of 1178 thoroughbreds that were monitored for up to 2 years. A total of 148 exercise-induced fractures occurred in the study population. Results from a nested case-control study showed a strong interactive effect of exercise distances at different speeds on fracture risk. Horses that exceeded 44 km at canter (< or =14 m/s) and 6 km at gallop (>14 m/s) in a 30-day period were at particularly increased risk of fracture. These distances equate to ca. 7700 bone loading cycles at canter and 880 loading cycles at gallop. Fifty-six fractures occurred in the subset of study horses that were followed since entering training as yearlings, when skeletally immature (n = 335). Cohort analysis of this data set showed that, in previously untrained bones, accumulation of canter exercise increased the risk of fracture (P < or = 0.01), whereas accumulation of high-speed gallop exercise had a protective effect (P < 0.01). However, increasing distances at canter and gallop in short time periods (up to one month) were associated with an increasing fracture risk. All training exercise involves a balance between the risk of fracture inherent in exposure to loading and the beneficial effect that loading has by stimulating bone cells to produce a more robust architecture. Results from our study provide important epidemiological evidence of the effects of physical exercise on bone adaptation and injury risk and can be used to inform the design of safer exercise regimens in physically active populations. |
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Epidemiology Unit, Animal Health Trust, Newmarket, United Kingdom. kverheyen@rvc.ac.uk |
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8756-3282 |
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PMID:16926125 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4030 |
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Author |
Meershoek, L.S.; Schamhardt, H.C.; Roepstorff, L.; Johnston, C. |
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Title |
Forelimb tendon loading during jump landings and the influence of fence height |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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Volume |
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Issue |
33 |
Pages |
6-10 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/injuries/physiology; Horses/injuries/*physiology; Lameness, Animal/etiology; Ligaments, Articular/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal; Tendon Injuries/complications/physiopathology/veterinary; Tendons/*physiology; Weight-Bearing/physiology |
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Lameness in athletic horses is often caused by forelimb tendon injuries, especially in the interosseus tendon (TI) and superficial digital flexor tendon (SDF), but also in the accessory ligament (AL) of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDF). In an attempt to explain the aetiology of these injuries, the present study investigated the loading of the tendons during landing after a jump. In jumping horses, the highest forces can be expected in the trailing limb during landing. Therefore, landing kinematics and ground reaction forces of the trailing forelimb were measured from 6 horses jumping single fences with low to medium heights of 0.80, 1.00 and 1.20 m. The tendon forces were calculated using inverse dynamics and an in vitro model of the lower forelimb. Calculated peak forces in the TI, SDF and DDF + AL during landing were 15.8, 13.9 and 11.7 kN respectively. The relative loading of the tendons (landing forces compared with failure forces determined in a separate study) increased from DDF to TI to SDF and was very high in SDF. This explains the low injury incidence of the DDF and the high injury incidence of the SDF. Fence height substantially influenced SDF forces, whereas it hardly influenced TI forces and did not influence AL strain. Reduction of fence height might therefore limit the risks for SDF injuries, but not for TI and AL injuries. |
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Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology, Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands |
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PMID:11721571 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3786 |
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Author |
Krzak, W.E.; Gonyou, H.W.; Lawrence, L.M. |
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Title |
Wood chewing by stabled horses: diurnal pattern and effects of exercise |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1991 |
Publication |
Journal of Animal Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Anim Sci. |
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69 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
1053-1058 |
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Animal Feed; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; *Circadian Rhythm; Female; Horses/*physiology; Male; *Mastication; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Sodium Chloride/administration & dosage; Videotape Recording; Wood |
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Nine yearling horses, stabled in individual stalls, were used in a trial to determine the diurnal pattern of wood chewing and the effects of exercise on this behavior. The trial was a Latin square design conducted over three 2-wk periods during which each horse was exposed to each of the three following treatments: 1) no exercise (NE), 2) exercise after the morning feeding (AM), and 3) exercise in the afternoon (PM). Horses were fed a complete pelleted feed in the morning and both pelleted feed and long-stemmed hay in the afternoon. Exercise consisted of 45 min on a mechanical walker followed by 45 min in a paddock with bare soil. Each stall was equipped with two untreated spruce boards during each period for wood chewing. Wood chewing was evaluated by videotaping each horse for 22 h during each period, determining the weight and volume of the boards before and after each period, and by visual appraisal of the boards. Intake of trace mineralized salt was also measured. Wood chewing occurred primarily between 2200 and 1200. All measures of wood chewing were correlated when totals for the entire 6 wk were analyzed. When analysis was performed on 2-wk values, videotape results were not correlated with volume or weight loss of boards. Horses chewed more when on the NE treatment (511 s/d) than when on AM or PM (57 and 136 s/d, respectively; P less than .05). Salt intake tended to be greater for NE than for the other treatments (P less than .10).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) |
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Dept. of Anim. Sci., University of Illinois, Urbana 61801 |
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0021-8812 |
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PMID:2061237 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1949 |
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Author |
Hernandez, J.; Hawkins, D.L. |
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Title |
Training failure among yearling horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
American Journal of Veterinary Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Am J Vet Res |
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Volume |
62 |
Issue |
9 |
Pages |
1418-1422 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Female; Florida; Horses/*physiology; Lameness, Animal/*economics; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/adverse effects/economics; Respiratory Tract Diseases/economics/*veterinary; Statistics, Nonparametric |
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OBJECTIVE: To compare financial returns between pinhooked yearling horses (ie, bought and trained for approximately 5 months with the goal of selling the horse at “2-year-olds in training” sales) that had mild or severe training failure and horses that had planned versus nonplanned training failure. ANIMALS: 40 Thoroughbred pinhooked yearling horses. PROCEDURE: During the period from September 1998 through and April 1999, 20 horses had mild training failure (1 to 11 days lost), and 20 horses had severe training failure (13 to 108 days lost). Horses were assigned to these 2 groups on the basis of frequency distribution (median) of days lost during training. Horses were also categorized on the basis of type of training failure (planned vs nonplanned training failure). The outcome of primary interest was financial return. Median financial returns were compared among groups by use of the Mann-Whitney U test. RESULTS: Median financial returns for horses that had severe training failure ($1,000) were significantly different, compared with horses that had mild training failure ($24,000). Analysis of results also indicated that median returns were significantly different among horses that had planned training failure (-$2,000; eg, horses with radiographic abnormalities detected during routine prepurchase examinations that required surgical treatment, resulting in days lost during training), compared with horses that did not ($10,000). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Training failure has an economic impact on revenues in pinhooked yearling horses. Lameness, planned training failure, respiratory disease, and ringworm were common and important causes of training failure. |
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Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville 32610-0136, USA |
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0002-9645 |
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PMID:11560271 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4051 |
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Author |
Davies, H.M.S. |
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Title |
The timing and distribution of strains around the surface of the midshaft of the third metacarpal bone during treadmill exercise in one Thoroughbred racehorse |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Australian Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Aust Vet J |
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Volume |
83 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
157-162 |
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Animals; Exercise Test/veterinary; Female; Gait/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Metacarpus/*physiology; Motor Activity/physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; Stress, Mechanical; Weight-Bearing/physiology |
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OBJECTIVE: To confirm that the midshaft dorsal cortex of the third metacarpal bone experienced higher compressive strains during fast exercise than the medial or lateral cortices, and that the strain peak occurred earlier in the hoof-down phase of the stride on the dorsal cortex than the medial or lateral cortices. DESIGN: Observations of a single horse. PROCEDURE: Strains were collected from a single, sound, 3-year-old Thoroughbred mare during treadmill exercise from rosette strain gauges implanted onto the medial, lateral and dorsal surfaces of the midshaft of the right cannon bone, simultaneously with data from a hoof switch that showed when the hoof was in the stance phase. RESULTS: Peak compressive strains on the dorsal surface of the third metacarpal bone were proportional to exercise speed and occurred at about 30% of stance. Peak compressive strains on the medial surface of the non-lead limb reached a maximum at a speed around 10 m/s and occurred at mid-stance. Peak compressive strains on the lateral surface varied in timing and size between strides at all exercise speeds, but remained less than -2000 microstrains. CONCLUSIONS: The timing of peak compressive strains on the dorsal cortex suggests a relationship to deceleration of the limb following hoof impact, so the main determinants of their size would be exercise speed and turning (as shown in previous experiments). This experiment confirms data from other laboratories that were published but not discussed, that peak compressive strains on the medial surface occur at mid-stance. This suggests that they are related to the support of body weight. The strains on the lateral cortex occurred at variable times so may be associated with the maintenance of balance as well as the support of body weight. Understanding the loading of the third metacarpal bone will help to determine causes of damage to it and ways in which the bone might be conditioned to prevent such damage. |
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Department of Veterinary Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010. h.davies@unimelb.edu.au |
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0005-0423 |
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PMID:15825628 |
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1891 |
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Author |
Santamaria, S.; Bobbert, M.F.; Back, W.; Barneveld, A.; van Weeren, P.R. |
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Title |
Effect of early training on the jumping technique of horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
American Journal of Veterinary Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Am J Vet Res |
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Volume |
66 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
418-424 |
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Keywords |
Age Factors; Analysis of Variance; Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/physiology; Gait/*physiology; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/growth & development/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Models, Biological; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*methods |
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OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of early training for jumping by comparing the jumping technique of horses that had received early training with that of horses raised conventionally. ANIMALS: 40 Dutch Warmblood horses. PROCEDURE: The horses were analyzed kinematically during free jumping at 6 months of age. Subsequently, they were allocated into a control group that was raised conventionally and an experimental group that received 30 months of early training starting at 6 months of age. At 4 years of age, after a period of rest in pasture and a short period of training with a rider, both groups were analyzed kinematically during free jumping. Subsequently, both groups started a 1-year intensive training for jumping, and at 5 years of age, they were again analyzed kinematically during free jumping. In addition, the horses competed in a puissance competition to test maximal performance. RESULTS: Whereas there were no differences in jumping technique between experimental and control horses at 6 months of age, at 4 years, the experimental horses jumped in a more effective manner than the control horses; they raised their center of gravity less yet cleared more fences successfully than the control horses. However, at 5 years of age, these differences were not detected. Furthermore, the experimental horses did not perform better than the control horses in the puissance competition. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Specific training for jumping of horses at an early age is unnecessary because the effects on jumping technique and jumping capacity are not permanent. |
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Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, NL-3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands |
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0002-9645 |
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PMID:15822585 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4037 |
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Author |
Pearce, G.P.; May-Davis, S.; Greaves, D. |
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Title |
Femoral asymmetry in the Thoroughbred racehorse |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Australian Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Aust Vet J |
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Volume |
83 |
Issue |
6 |
Pages |
367-370 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Cumulative Trauma Disorders/pathology/*veterinary; Femur/*pathology; Horse Diseases/*pathology/physiopathology; Horses; Locomotion; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology |
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OBJECTIVE: To investigate the occurrence of geometrical asymmetries in the macro-architecture of left and right femurs from Thoroughbred racehorses previously used in competitive training and racing in New South Wales, Australia. METHODS: Detailed postmortem measurements were made of 37 characteristics of left and right femurs from eleven Thoroughbred racehorses euthanased for reasons unrelated to the study. Measurements focused on articulating surfaces and sites of attachment of muscles and ligaments known to be associated with hindlimb locomotion. RESULTS: Five measurements were significantly larger in left compared to right femurs (P < 0.05). The regions showing significant differences between left and right limbs were proximal cranial and overhead medio-lateral widths, greater trochanter depth, depth of the fovea in the femoral head and distal inter-epicondylar width. CONCLUSION: The left-right differences in femoral morphology were associated with sites of muscle and ligament attachment known to be involved with hindlimb function in negotiating turns. These differences may be the result of selection pressure for racing performance on curved race tracks and/or adaptations related to asymmetrical loading of the outside hindlimb associated with repeated negotiation of turns on such tracks. |
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Faculty of Rural Management, University of Sydney, Leeds Parade, Orange, New South Wales 2800. gpp28@cam.ac.uk |
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0005-0423 |
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PMID:15986917 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4036 |
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Author |
Elsaesser, F.; Klobasa, F.; Ellendorff, F. |
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Title |
ACTH stimulation test for the determination of salivary cortisol and of cortisol responses as markers of the training status/fitness of warm-blooded sports horses] |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
DTW. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift |
Abbreviated Journal |
Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr |
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Volume |
108 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
31-36 |
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Keywords |
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone/*diagnostic use; Animals; Health; Horses/*physiology; Hydrocortisone/*analysis/*secretion; Male; Orchiectomy; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Running; Saliva/*chemistry; Walking |
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Abstract |
Previous work (Marc et al., 2000) suggested that plasma cortisol responses to treadmill exercise or ACTH injection are a reliable marker for performance evaluation in warmblood horses. For practical purposes blood sample collections and treadmill exercise tests are somewhat troublesome and time consuming. The goal of this study was thus to evaluate the use of saliva for cortisol determination (by direct EIA) as a marker for performance and to investigate the reliability and repeatability of plasma cortisol responses to a single i.v. injection of ACTH (50 micrograms or 250 micrograms). Furthermore, the effect of training horses for 8 weeks 3 times per week covering the same distance (increasing from 3.5 km during the first week to 8 km during the last week) either by trotting (approximately 240 m/min) or by cantering (375 m/min) was investigated. For this purpose initially ten four-year-old Hannovarian geldings, all reared in the same State stud, were used. Mean overall correlation between salivary cortisol and plasma cortisol concentrations was 0.64 when samples of various points of time were used. However, in spite of attempts to standardize saliva sample collection, correlation between salivary cortisol levels and plasma cortisol levels at distinct points of time in different tests were low and significant (r = 0.85, p < 0.02) only in one test. Thus, salivary cortisol measurements for diagnostic purposes are not reliable or useful. The repeatability of plasma cortisol responses to ACTH for untrained and trained horses were r = 0.86 and r = 0.8 respectively (p < or = 0.01 and p < or = 0.05 respectively). Training horses either by trotting or cantering did not affect the cortisol response either to treadmill exercise or to stimulation by ACTH. It is concluded that the relationship between salivary cortisol levels and plasma cortisol levels is not close enough to allow the use of salivary cortisol determination as marker of the training status/fitness of horses. The repeatability of the cortisol response to ACTH is similar to the cortisol response to treadmill exercise. Based on plasma cortisol responses to ACTH or treadmill exercise training horses by cantering at low speed is not superior to training by trotting for the fitness of horses. |
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Address |
Institut fur Tierzucht und Tierverhalten Mariensee (FAL), Holtystrasse 10, 31535 Neustadt. elsaesser@tzv.fal.de |
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Publisher |
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Place of Publication |
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Editor |
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Language |
German |
Summary Language |
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Original Title |
ACTH Stimulationstest und Bestimmung von Cortisol im Blut und Speichel zur Bewertung des Trainingszustands/der Kondition beim Warmblutpferd |
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Series Editor |
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Series Title |
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Abbreviated Series Title |
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Series Volume |
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Series Issue |
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Edition |
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ISSN |
0341-6593 |
ISBN |
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Medium |
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Area |
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Expedition |
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Conference |
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Notes |
PMID:11232423 |
Approved |
no |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
4053 |
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