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Author |
Couzin, I.D.; Krause, J.; Franks, N.R.; Levin, S.A. |
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Title |
Effective leadership and decision-making in animal groups on the move |
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2005 |
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433 |
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7025 |
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513-516 |
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0028-0836 |
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10.1038/nature03236 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4827 |
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Author |
Fehr, E.; Gachter, S. |
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Title |
Altruistic punishment in humans |
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Journal Article |
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2002 |
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Nature |
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415 |
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6868 |
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137-140 |
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Human cooperation is an evolutionary puzzle. Unlike other creatures, people frequently cooperate with genetically unrelated strangers, often in large groups, with people they will never meet again, and when reputation gains are small or absent. These patterns of cooperation cannot be explained by the nepotistic motives associated with the evolutionary theory of kin selection and the selfish motives associated with signalling theory or the theory of reciprocal altruism. Here we show experimentally that the altruistic punishment of defectors is a key motive for the explanation of cooperation. Altruistic punishment means that individuals punish, although the punishment is costly for them and yields no material gain. We show that cooperation flourishes if altruistic punishment is possible, and breaks down if it is ruled out. The evidence indicates that negative emotions towards defectors are the proximate mechanism behind altruistic punishment. These results suggest that future study of the evolution of human cooperation should include a strong focus on explaining altruistic punishment. |
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0028-0836 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4835 |
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Author |
Clutton-Brock, T.H.; Parker, G.A. |
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Title |
Punishment in animal societies |
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Journal Article |
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1995 |
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Nature |
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373 |
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6511 |
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209-216 |
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Although positive reciprocity (reciprocal altruism) has been a focus of interest in evolutionary biology, negative reciprocity (retaliatory infliction of fitness reduction) has been largely ignored. In social animals, retaliatory aggression is common, individuals often punish other group members that infringe their interests, and punishment can cause subordinates to desist from behaviour likely to reduce the fitness of dominant animals. Punishing strategies are used to establish and maintain dominance relationships, to discourage parasites and cheats, to discipline offspring or prospective sexual partners and to maintain cooperative behaviour. |
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10.1038/373209a0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4838 |
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Author |
Packer, C. |
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Title |
Reciprocal altruism in Papio anubis |
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1977 |
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Nature |
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Nature |
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265 |
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441-445 |
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10.1038/265441a0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4840 |
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Author |
Nowak, M.A.; Sigmund, K. |
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Title |
Tit for tat in heterogeneous populations |
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1992 |
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Nature |
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Nature |
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355 |
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250-253 |
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10.1038/355250a0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4842 |
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Author |
Maynard Smith, J.; Price, G.R. |
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Title |
The Logic of Animal Conflict |
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Year |
1973 |
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Nature |
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Nature |
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246 |
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15-18 |
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10.1038/246015a0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4844 |
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Author |
Hamilton, W.D. |
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Title |
Selfish and Spiteful Behaviour in an Evolutionary Model |
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1970 |
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Nature |
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Nature |
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228 |
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1218-1220 |
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10.1038/2281218a0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4853 |
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Author |
Reeve, H.K. |
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Title |
Queen activation of lazy workers in colonies of the eusocial naked mole-rat |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1992 |
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Nature |
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Nature |
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358 |
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147-149 |
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10.1038/358147a0 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4921 |
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Author |
Foster, K.R.; Ratnieks, F.L.W. |
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Title |
Social insects: Facultative worker policing in a wasp |
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2000 |
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Nature |
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407 |
Issue |
6805 |
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692-693 |
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Kin-selection theory predicts that in social-insect colonies where the queen has mated multiple times, the workers will enforce cooperation by policing each other's reproduction1, 2, 3, 4. We have discovered a species, the wasp Dolichovespula saxonica, in which some queens mate once and others mate many times, and in which workers frequently attempt reproduction, allowing this prediction to be tested directly. We find that multiple mating by the queen leads to mutual policing by workers, whereas single mating does not. |
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Macmillan Magazines Ltd. |
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0028-0836 |
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10.1038/35037665 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4940 |
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Author |
Harrison, S.A.; Tong, F. |
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Title |
Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas |
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2009 |
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Nature |
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458 |
Issue |
7238 |
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632-635 |
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Visual working memory provides an essential link between perception and higher cognitive functions, allowing for the active maintenance of information about stimuli no longer in view1, 2. Research suggests that sustained activity in higher-order prefrontal, parietal, inferotemporal and lateral occipital areas supports visual maintenance3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and may account for the limited capacity of working memory to hold up to 3–4 items9, 10, 11. Because higher-order areas lack the visual selectivity of early sensory areas, it has remained unclear how observers can remember specific visual features, such as the precise orientation of a grating, with minimal decay in performance over delays of many seconds12. One proposal is that sensory areas serve to maintain fine-tuned feature information13, but early visual areas show little to no sustained activity over prolonged delays14, 15, 16. Here we show that orientations held in working memory can be decoded from activity patterns in the human visual cortex, even when overall levels of activity are low. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging and pattern classification methods, we found that activity patterns in visual areas V1–V4 could predict which of two oriented gratings was held in memory with mean accuracy levels upwards of 80%, even in participants whose activity fell to baseline levels after a prolonged delay. These orientation-selective activity patterns were sustained throughout the delay period, evident in individual visual areas, and similar to the responses evoked by unattended, task-irrelevant gratings. Our results demonstrate that early visual areas can retain specific information about visual features held in working memory, over periods of many seconds when no physical stimulus is present. |
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Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved |
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0028-0836 |
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10.1038/nature07832 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4944 |
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