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Linklater, W. L., Cameron, E. Z., Stafford, K. J., & Minot, E. O. Estimating Kaimanawa feral horse population size and growth. In SCIENCE & RESEARCH INTERNAL REPORT 185.
Abstract: Animal flight behaviour in response to aircraft could have a profound influence
on the accuracy and precision of aerial estimates of population size but is rarely
investigated. Using independent observers on the ground and in the air we
recorded the presence and behaviour of 17 groups, including 136 individually
marked horses, during a helicopter count in New Zealand’s Kaimanawa
Mountains. We also compared the helicopter count with ground-based
estimates using mark-resight and line-transect methods in areas ranging from
20.5 to 176 km2. Helicopter counts were from 16% smaller to 54% larger than
ground-based estimates. The helicopter induced a flight response in all horse
groups monitored. During flight, horse groups traveled from 0.1 up to 2.75 km
before leaving the ground observer’s view and temporarily changed in size and
composition. A tenth of the horses were not counted and a quarter counted
twice. A further 23 (17%) may have been counted twice but only two of the
three observers’ records concurred. Thus, the helicopter count over-estimated
the marked sub-population by at least 15% and possibly by up to 32%. The net
over-estimate of the marked sub-population corresponded to the 17% and 13%
difference between helicopter counts and ground-based estimates in the central
study area and for the largest area sampled, respectively. Feral horse flight
behaviour should be considered when designing methods for population
monitoring using aircraft. We identify the characteristics of the helicopter
count that motivated horse flight behaviour. We compared our own recent
estimate of population growth from measures of fecundity and mortality (λ =
1.096 with an earlier-published one (λ = 1.182, where r = 0.167) that had been
derived by interpolating between the available history of single counts. Our
model of population growth, standardised aerial counts, and historical estimates
of annual reproduction suggest that the historical sequence of counts since
1979 probably over-estimated growth because count techniques improved and
greater effort was expended in successive counts. We used line-transect, markresight
and dung density sampling methods for population monitoring and
discuss their advantages and limitations over helicopter counts.
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Nathan J. Emery. (2005). The Evolution of Social Cognition. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Social BehaviourGarten. Psychology Press.
Abstract: Although this bookis focusedon the cognitive neuroscience ofhuman social behaviour, an
understandingofsocial cognition in non-human animals is critical for unravellingthe neural basis of
social cognition in humans as well as the selective pressures that have shapedthe evolution ofcomplex
social cognition. Thanks to methodological limitations, we know little about the relationships between
certain biochemical andelectrophysiological properties ofthe human brain andhow theycompute the
behaviour andmental states ofother individuals. Traditional techniques for examiningneural function
in humans, such as event-relatedpotentials (ERP),positron emission tomography(PET),and
functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI),are constrainedbythe fact that subjects are placed
either into an immoveable scanner with a lot ofbackgroundnoise or wiredup with dozens of
electrodes that are sensitive to slight movements. The possibilityofscanningor recordingbrain waves
from two individuals that are physicallyinteractingsociallyis technicallyimpossible at present
(however, see Montague et al, 2002 for a new methodfor simultaneouslyscanningtwo individuals
interactingvia a computer).
The onlywayto understandthe neurocognitive architecture ofhuman social behaviour is to examine
similar social processes in both human andnon-human animal minds andmake comparisons at the
species level. An additional argument is that traditional human socio-cognitive tasks are dependent on
the use ofstories, cartoons andverbal cues andinstructions (Heberlein & Adolphs, this volume)which
themselves will elicit specific neural responses that have to be eliminatedfrom neural responses
specificallyrelatedto mindreading. Therefore, the development ofnon-verbal tasks wouldprovide a
breakthrough for studies in non-linguistic animals, pre-verbal human infants andhuman cognitive
neuroimaging.
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Schnall, S., & Gattis, M. (1998). Transitive Inference by Visual Reasoning. Retrieved June 2, 2024, from http://faculty.virginia.edu/schnall/Schnall%20&%20Gattis.pdf
Abstract: Two experiments are reported that investigated the influence
of linear spatial organization on transitive inference
performance. Reward/no-reward relations between
overlapping pairs of elements were presented in a context of
linear spatial order or random spatial order. Participants in
the linear arrangement condition showed evidence for visual
reasoning: They systematically mapped spatial relations to
conceptual relation and used the spatial relations to make
inferences on a reasoning task in a new spatial context. We
suggest that linear ordering may be a “good figure”, by
constituting a parsimonious representation for the integration
of premises, as well as for the inferencing process. The late
emergence of transitive inference in children may be the
result of limited cognitive capacity, which --unless an
external spatial array is available --constrains the
construction of an internal spatial array.
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Merkies, K., McKechnie, M. J., & Zakrajsek, E. (2018). Behavioural and physiological responses of therapy horses to mentally traumatized humans. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, .
Abstract: The benefits to humans of equine-assisted therapy (EAT) have been well-researched, however few studies have analyzed the effects on the horse. Understanding how differing mental states of humans affect the behaviour and response of the horse can assist in providing optimal outcomes for both horse and human. Four humans clinically diagnosed and under care of a psychotherapist for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) were matched physically to four neurotypical control humans and individually subjected to each of 17 therapy horses loose in a round pen. A professional acting coach instructed the control humans in replicating the physical movements of their paired PTSD individual. Both horses and humans were equipped with a heart rate (HR) monitor recording HR every 5secs. Saliva samples were collected from each horse 30 min before and 30 min after each trial to analyze cortisol concentrations. Each trial consisted of 5 min of baseline observation of the horse alone in the round pen after which the human entered the round pen for 2 min, followed by an additional 5 min of the horse alone. Behavioural observations indicative of stress in the horse (gait, head height, ear orientation, body orientation, distance from the human, latency of approach to the human, vocalizations, and chewing) were retrospectively collected from video recordings of each trial and analyzed using a repeated measures GLIMMIX with Tukey's multiple comparisons for differences between treatments and time periods. Horses moved slower (p < 0.0001), carried their head lower (p < 0.0001), vocalized less (p < 0.0001), and chewed less (p < 0.0001) when any human was present with them in the round pen. Horse HR increased in the presence of the PTSD humans, even after the PTSD human left the pen (p < 0.0001). Since two of the PTSD/control human pairs were experienced with horses and two were not, a post-hoc analysis showed that horses approached quicker (p < 0.016) and stood closer (p < 0.0082) to humans who were experienced with horses. Horse HR was lower when with inexperienced humans (p < 0.0001) whereas inexperienced human HR was higher (p < 0.0001). Horse salivary cortisol did not differ between exposure to PTSD and control humans (p > 0.32). Overall, behavioural and physiological responses of horses to humans are more pronounced based on human experience with horses than whether the human is diagnosed with a mental disorder. This may be a reflection of a directness of movement associated with humans who are experienced with horses that makes the horse more attentive. It appears that horses respond more to physical cues from the human rather than emotional cues. This knowledge is important in tailoring therapy programs and justifying horse responses when interacting with a patient in a therapy setting.
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Houpt, K., Marrow, M., & Seeliger, M. (2000). A preliminary study of the effect of music on equine behavior. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 20(11), 691–737.
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Puppe, B., Langbein, J., Bauer, J., & Hoy, S. (2008). A comparative view on social hierarchy formation at different stages of pig production using sociometric measures. Livestock Science, 113(2-3), 155–162.
Abstract: A standardised and comprehensive approach to describe dominance relationships in gregarious farm animals quantitatively was recently developed, incorporating a combination of appropriate sociometric measures. The present study applied this approach to a comparative analysis of the social hierarchies within 57 groups of domestic pigs at different age/production stages with a total of 496 animals. Unacquainted pigs were grouped to three age categories which correspond to the typical production stages: weaned pigs (PIG28, 12 groups), growing pigs (PIG80, 16 groups), and reproductive sows (SOW, 29 groups). Based on observed agonistic interactions, sociometric values were calculated both at the dyadic and at the group level and may be considered as preliminary reference values for further studies. As indicated by the respective values of the Kendall index (PIG28: 0.66, tested as significant in 69.0% of the observed groups; PIG80: 0.71, 87.5%; SOW: 0.61, 69.0%), and the improved Landau index (PIG28: 0.70, 75.0%; PIG80: 0.72, 93.7%; SOW: 0.71, 72.4%), a social organisation towards a quasi-linear social hierarchy was predominantly developed throughout all age/production categories. However, compared to weaned and growing pigs, sows were characterised by significant differences concerning establishment (fewer agonistic interactions) and kind (more unknown dyads, fewer two-way and significant dyads, higher directional consistency index) of their social hierarchy. It seems that sows have effectively adapted their agonistic behaviour towards pen-mates to regulate social dominance relationships, whereas younger pigs frequently display agonistic interactions also to gain additional experience on social cues (e.g. the fighting ability of an opponent). Hence, it is concluded that the effective experience of socialisation during sensitive periods may increase the social skills of pigs which in turn can improve their welfare and health, e.g. by adjusted aggressive behaviour. The consideration of comparable and standardised sociometric measures in livestock breeding may help to improve husbandry conditions.
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Terrace, H. S. (1985). Animal Cognition: Thinking without Language. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences (1934-1990), 308(1135), 113–128.
Abstract: Recent attempts to teach apes rudimentary grammatical skills have produced negative results. The basic obstacle appears to be at the level of the individual symbol which, for apes, functions only as a demand. Evidence is lacking that apes can use symbols as names, that is, as a means of simply transmitting information. Even though non-human animals lack linguistic competence, much evidence has recently accumulated that a variety of animals can represent particular features of their environment. What then is the non-verbal nature of animal representations? This question will be discussed with reference to the following findings of studies of serial learning by pigeons. While learning to produce a particular sequence of four elements (colours), pigeons also acquire knowledge about the relation between non-adjacent elements and about the ordinal position of a particular element. Learning to produce a particular sequence also facilitates the discrimination of that sequence from other sequences.
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Hanggi, E. B. (2001). Can Horses Recognize Pictures? Proceedings of the Third International Conference of Cognitive Science, , 52–56.
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McBride, S. D., Hemmings, A., & Robinson, K. (2004). A preliminary study on the effect of massage to reduce stress in the horse. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 24(2), 76–81.
Abstract: The use of massage (as a potential form of acupressure) has long been documented as a human relaxation aid. However, little scientific research has been carried out into its potential use as a form of stress reduction in the horse. This preliminary study investigated the effect of massage at six different sites (thoracic trapezius [withers], mid-brachiocephalicus, cervical ventral serrate and cervical trapezius [mid-neck], proximal gluteal fascia and proximal superficial gluteal [croup], proximal and mid-semitendinosus [second thigh], lateral triceps, proximal extensor carpi radialis and proximal common digital extensor [forearm], proximal brachiocephalicus, proximal splenius and ear [poll and ears) on stress-related behavioral and physiological (heart rate [HR]) measures in the horse. Ten riding school ponies/horses were massaged at each of the six sites (three preferred and three nonpreferred sites of allogrooming (mutual grooming between conspecifics) and changes in HR and behavior were recorded. The results indicated that during massage, all sites except the forearm resulted in a significant reduction in HR (P < .05) with massage at the withers, mid-neck, and croup having the greatest effect (preferred sites of allogrooming). Massage at preferred sites of allogrooming also elicited significantly more (P < .05) positive behavioral responses compared with the three nonpreferred sites. The practical implications of this study are discussed.
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Davies Morel, M. C. G., Newcombe, J. R., & Holland, S. J. (2002). Factors affecting gestation length in the Thoroughbred mare. Animal Reproduction Science, 74(3-4), 175–185.
Abstract: In order to assist in the accurate prediction of the timing of parturition in the mare true gestation length, along with the potential effect of a number of factors, was investigated. Data from 433 Thoroughbred foal pregnancies were used. Sequential ultrasonic scanning allowed the true gestation length (fertilisation-parturition) to be ascertained, as apposed to previous work, which used the mating-parturition interval. An average gestation length of 344.1+/-0.49 days was evident. Colt foal pregnancies were significantly (P<0.001) longer (346.2+/-0.72) than fillies (342.4+/-0.65). Month of birth had a significant effect on gestation length in all foals (P<0.001). With foals born in January having the shortest gestation lengths and those born in April the longest. Mare age, year of birth, stallion age, stud farm and the interval between ovulation and mating had no significant effect. It is concluded that (i) the gestation length range (315-388 days), all resulting in viable foals is noteworthy and of clinical importance when considering the classification of dysmaturity in foals, (ii) mares carrying colt foals due to be born in the middle of the breeding season (April) are likely to have the longer gestation lengths.
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