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| Author | Christensen, J.W.; Rundgren, M.; Olsson, K. | ||||
| Title | Training methods for horses: habituation to a frightening stimulus | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2006 | Publication | Equine veterinary journal | Abbreviated Journal  |
Equine Vet J |
| Volume | 38 | Issue | 5 | Pages | 439-443 |
| Keywords | Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; *Conditioning (Psychology); *Fear; Heart Rate/*physiology; Horses/physiology/*psychology; Learning; Male; Random Allocation; *Reinforcement (Psychology); Safety; Time Factors | ||||
| Abstract | REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Responses of horses in frightening situations are important for both equine and human safety. Considerable scientific interest has been shown in development of reactivity tests, but little effort has been dedicated to the development of appropriate training methods for reducing fearfulness. OBJECTIVES: To investigate which of 3 different training methods (habituation, desensitisation and counter-conditioning) was most effective in teaching horses to react calmly in a potentially frightening situation. HYPOTHESES: 1) Horses are able to generalise about the test stimulus such that, once familiar with the test stimulus in one situation, it appears less frightening and elicits a reduced response even when the stimulus intensity is increased or the stimulus is presented differently; and 2) alternative methods such as desensitisation and counter-conditioning would be more efficient than a classic habituation approach. METHODS: Twenty-seven naive 2-year-old Danish Warmblood stallions were trained according to 3 different methods, based on classical learning theory: 1) horses (n = 9) were exposed to the full stimulus (a moving, white nylon bag, 1.2 x 0.75 m) in 5 daily training sessions until they met a predefined habituation criterion (habituation); 2) horses (n = 9) were introduced gradually to the stimulus and habituated to each step before the full stimulus was applied (desensitisation); 3) horses (n = 9) were trained to associate the stimulus with a positive reward before being exposed to the full stimulus (counter-conditioning). Each horse received 5 training sessions of 3 min per day. Heart rate and behavioural responses were recorded. RESULTS: Horses trained with the desensitisation method showed fewer flight responses in total and needed fewer training sessions to learn to react calmly to test stimuli. Variations in heart rate persisted even when behavioural responses had ceased. In addition, all horses on the desensitisation method eventually habituated to the test stimulus whereas some horses on the other methods did not. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Desensitisation appeared to be the most effective training method for horses in frightening situations. Further research is needed in order to investigate the role of positive reinforcement, such as offering food, in the training of horses. | ||||
| Address | Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Health, Welfare and Nutrition, Tjele, Denmark | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 0425-1644 | ISBN | Medium | ||
| Area | Expedition | Conference | |||
| Notes | PMID:16986605 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | Serial | 1783 | |||
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| Author | Mills, D.S. | ||||
| Title | Applying learning theory to the management of the horse: the difference between getting it right and getting it wrong | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 1998 | Publication | Equine veterinary journal. Supplement | Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
| Volume | Issue | 27 | Pages | 44-48 | |
| Keywords | Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Horses/*psychology; *Learning; Reinforcement (Psychology) | ||||
| Abstract | Horses constantly modify their behaviour as a result of experience. This involves the creation of an association between events or stimuli. The influence of people on the modification and generation of certain behaviour patterns extends beyond the intentional training of the horse. The impact of any action depends on how it is perceived by the horse, rather than the motive of the handler. Negative and positive reinforcement increase the probability of specific behaviours recurring i.e. strengthen the association between events, whereas punishment reduces the probable recurrence of a behaviour without providing specific information about the desired alternative. In this paper the term 'punishers' is used to refer to the physical aids, such as a whip or crop, which may be used to bring about the process of punishment. However, if their application ceases when a specific behaviour occurs they may negatively reinforce that action. Intended 'punishers' may also be rewarding (e.g. for attention seeking behaviour). Therefore, contingency factors (which define the relationship between stimuli, such as the level of reinforcement), contiguity factors (which describe the proximity of events in space or time) and choice of reinforcing stimuli are critical in determining the rate of learning. The many problems associated with the application of punishment in practice lead to confusion by both horse and handler and, possibly, abuse of the former. Most behaviour problems relate to handling and management of the horse and can be avoided or treated with a proper analysis of the factors influencing the behaviour. | ||||
| Address | De Montfort University Lincoln, School of Agriculture and Horticulture, Caythorpe, Lincs., UK | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| Notes | PMID:10485004 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 845 | ||
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| Author | Cooper, J.J. | ||||
| Title | Comparative learning theory and its application in the training of horses | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 1998 | Publication | Equine veterinary journal. Supplement | Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
| Volume | Issue | 27 | Pages | 39-43 | |
| Keywords | Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Conditioning (Psychology); Horses/*psychology; *Learning; Reinforcement (Psychology) | ||||
| Abstract | Training can best be explained as a process that occurs through stimulus-response-reinforcement chains, whereby animals are conditioned to associate cues in their environment, with specific behavioural responses and their rewarding consequences. Research into learning in horses has concentrated on their powers of discrimination and on primary positive reinforcement schedules, where the correct response is paired with a desirable consequence such as food. In contrast, a number of other learning processes that are used in training have been widely studied in other species, but have received little scientific investigation in the horse. These include: negative reinforcement, where performance of the correct response is followed by removal of, or decrease in, intensity of a unpleasant stimulus; punishment, where an incorrect response is paired with an undesirable consequence, but without consistent prior warning; secondary conditioning, where a natural primary reinforcer such as food is closely associated with an arbitrary secondary reinforcer such as vocal praise; and variable or partial conditioning, where once the correct response has been learnt, reinforcement is presented according to an intermittent schedule to increase resistance to extinction outside of training. | ||||
| Address | Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK | ||||
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| Notes | PMID:10485003 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 846 | ||
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| Author | Ferguson, D.L.; Rosales-Ruiz, J. | ||||
| Title | Loading the problem loader: the effects of target training and shaping on trailer-loading behavior of horses | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2001 | Publication | Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis | Abbreviated Journal |
J Appl Behav Anal |
| Volume | 34 | Issue | 4 | Pages | 409-423 |
| Keywords | Animals; *Conditioning, Operant; *Escape Reaction; Female; Horses/*psychology; Reinforcement (Psychology); *Transportation | ||||
| Abstract | The purpose of this study was to develop an effective method for trailer loading horses based on principles of positive reinforcement. Target training and shaping were used to teach trailer-loading behavior to 5 quarter horse mares in a natural setting. All 5 had been trailer loaded before through the use of aversive stimulation. Successive approximations to loading and inappropriate behaviors were the dependent variables. After training a horse to approach a target, the target was moved to various locations inside the trailer. Horses started training on the left side of a two-horse trailer. After a horse was loading on the left side, she was moved to the right side, then to loading half on the right and half on the left. A limited-hold procedure and the presence of a companion horse seemed to facilitate training for 1 horse. Inappropriate behaviors fell to zero immediately after target training, and all the horses successfully completed the shaping sequence. Finally, these effects were observed to generalize to novel conditions (a different trainer and a different trailer). | ||||
| Address | University of North Texas, Denton 76203, USA | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 0021-8855 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:11800182 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 1915 | ||
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| Author | Dorrance, B.R.; Zentall, T.R. | ||||
| Title | Imitation of conditional discriminations in pigeons (Columba livia) | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2002 | Publication | Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) | Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
| Volume | 116 | Issue | 3 | Pages | 277-285 |
| Keywords | Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Columbidae; Conditioning (Psychology)/*physiology; Discrimination Learning/*physiology; Habituation, Psychophysiologic; *Imitative Behavior; Light; Reinforcement (Psychology) | ||||
| Abstract | In the present experiments, the 2-action method was used to determine whether pigeons could learn to imitate a conditional discrimination. Demonstrator pigeons (Columba livia) stepped on a treadle in the presence of 1 light and pecked at the treadle in the presence of another light. Demonstration did not seem to affect acquisition of the conditional discrimination (Experiment 1) but did facilitate its reversal of the conditional discrimination (Experiments 2 and 3). The results suggest that pigeons are not only able to learn a specific behavior by observing another pigeon, but they can also learn under which circumstances to perform that behavior. The results have implications for proposed mechanisms of imitation in animals. | ||||
| Address | Department of Psychology, Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois 61201, USA. psdorrance@augustana.edu | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| Series Volume | Series Issue | Edition | |||
| ISSN | 0735-7036 | ISBN | Medium | ||
| Area | Expedition | Conference | |||
| Notes | PMID:12234078 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 240 | ||
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| Author | Dorrance, B.R.; Zentall, T.R. | ||||
| Title | Imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) depends on the motivational state of the observer quail at the time of observation | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2001 | Publication | Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) | Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
| Volume | 115 | Issue | 1 | Pages | 62-67 |
| Keywords | Animals; *Behavior, Animal; *Coturnix; Female; *Imitative Behavior; *Learning; Male; *Motivation; Reinforcement (Psychology); Time Factors | ||||
| Abstract | The 2-action method was used to examine whether imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) depends on the motivational state of the observer quail at the time of observation of the demonstrated behavior. Two groups of observers were fed before observation (satiated groups), whereas 2 other groups of observers were deprived of food before observation (hungry groups). Quail were tested either immediately following observation or after a 30-min delay. Results indicated that quail in the hungry groups imitated, whereas those in the satiated groups did not, regardless of whether their test was immediate or delayed. The results suggest that observer quail may not learn (through observation) behavior that leads to a reinforcer for which they are unmotivated at the time of test. In addition, the results show that quail are able to delay the performance of a response acquired through observation (i.e., they show deferred imitation). | ||||
| Address | Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506-0044, USA | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 0735-7036 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:11334220 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 245 | ||
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| Author | Zentall, T.R.; Roper, K.L.; Sherburne, L.M. | ||||
| Title | Most directed forgetting in pigeons can be attributed to the absence of reinforcement on forget trials during training or to other procedural artifacts | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 1995 | Publication | Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior | Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Anal Behav |
| Volume | 63 | Issue | 2 | Pages | 127-137 |
| Keywords | Animals; *Attention; Color Perception; Columbidae; Cues; *Discrimination Learning; *Mental Recall; Motivation; Pattern Recognition, Visual; *Reinforcement Schedule; Retention (Psychology) | ||||
| Abstract | In research on directed forgetting in pigeons using delayed matching procedures, remember cues, presented in the delay interval between sample and comparisons, have been followed by comparisons (i.e., a memory test), whereas forget cues have been followed by one of a number of different sample-independent events. The source of directed forgetting in delayed matching to sample in pigeons was examined in a 2 x 2 design by independently manipulating whether or not forget-cue trials in training ended with reinforcement and whether or not forget-cue trials in training included a simultaneous discrimination (involving stimuli other than those used in the matching task). Results were consistent with the hypothesis that reinforced responding following forget cues is sufficient to eliminate performance deficits on forget-cue probe trials. Only when reinforcement was omitted on forget-cue trials in training (whether a discrimination was required or not) was there a decrement in accuracy on forget-cue probe trials. When reinforcement is present, however, the pattern of responding established during and following a forget cue in training may also play a role in the directed forgetting effect. These findings support the view that much of the evidence for directed forgetting using matching procedures may result from motivational and behavioral artifacts rather than the loss of memory. | ||||
| Address | Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506 | ||||
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| Language | English | Summary Language | Original Title | ||
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| ISSN | 0022-5002 | ISBN | Medium | ||
| Area | Expedition | Conference | |||
| Notes | PMID:7714447 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 256 | ||
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| Author | Nevin, J.A.; Shettleworth, S.J. | ||||
| Title | An analysis of contrast effects in multiple schedules | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 1966 | Publication | Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior | Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Anal Behav |
| Volume | 9 | Issue | 4 | Pages | 305-315 |
| Keywords | Animals; Birds; *Conditioning (Psychology); Conditioning, Operant; Discrimination Learning; *Extinction, Psychological; Male; Reaction Time; *Reinforcement (Psychology) | ||||
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| ISSN | 0022-5002 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:5961499 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 392 | ||
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| Author | Lazareva, O.F.; Smirnova, A.A.; Bagozkaja, M.S.; Zorina, Z.A.; Rayevsky, V.V.; Wasserman, E.A. | ||||
| Title | Transitive responding in hooded crows requires linearly ordered stimuli | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 2004 | Publication | Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior | Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Anal Behav |
| Volume | 82 | Issue | 1 | Pages | 1-19 |
| Keywords | Animals; *Association; Cognition/physiology; Crows; Discrimination (Psychology); *Discrimination Learning; Feedback; Reinforcement (Psychology); Visual Perception/physiology | ||||
| Abstract | Eight crows were taught to discriminate overlapping pairs of visual stimuli (A+ B-, B+ C-, C+ D-, and D+ E-). For 4 birds, the stimuli were colored cards with a circle of the same color on the reverse side whose diameter decreased from A to E (ordered feedback group). These circles were made available for comparison to potentially help the crows order the stimuli along a physical dimension. For the other 4 birds, the circles corresponding to the colored cards had the same diameter (constant feedback group). In later testing, a novel choice pair (BD) was presented. Reinforcement history involving stimuli B and D was controlled so that the reinforcement/nonreinforcement ratios for the latter would be greater than for the former. If, during the BD test, the crows chose between stimuli according to these reinforcement/nonreinforcement ratios, then they should prefer D; if they chose according to the diameter of the feedback stimuli, then they should prefer B. In the ordered feedback group, the crows strongly preferred B over D; in the constant feedback group, the crows' choice did not differ significantly from chance. These results, plus simulations using associative models, suggest that the orderability of the postchoice feedback stimuli is important for crows' transitive responding. | ||||
| Address | Institute of Higher Nervous Activity, Moscow State University. olga-lazareva@uiowa.edu | ||||
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| ISSN | 0022-5002 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:15484868 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 612 | ||
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| Author | Farmer-Dougan, V.; Dougan, J. | ||||
| Title | The Man Who Listens To Behavior: Folk Wisdom And Behavior Analysis From A Real Horse Whisperer | Type | Journal Article | ||
| Year | 1999 | Publication | JOURNAL OF THE EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR | Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Anal Behav |
| Volume | 72 | Issue | 1 | Pages | 139-149 |
| Keywords | positive reinforcement, aversive control, learned helplessness, language, biological constraints, | ||||
| Abstract | The popular novel and movie The Horse Whisperer are based on the work of several real-life horse whisperers, the most famous of whom is Monty Roberts. Over the last 50 years, Roberts has developed a technique for training horses that is both more effective and less aversive than traditional training techniques. An analysis of Roberts` methods (as described in his book, The Man Who Listens to Horses) indicates a deep understanding of behavioral principles including positive reinforcement, timeout, species-specific defense reactions, learned helplessness, and the behavioral analysis of language. Roberts developed his theory and techniques on the basis of personal experience and folk wisdom, and not as the result of formal training in behavior analysis. Behavior analysts can clearly learn from such insightful yet behaviorally incorrect practitioners, just as such practitioners can benefit from the objective science of behavior analysts. |
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| ISSN | 0022-5002 | ISBN | Medium | ||
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| Notes | PMID:16812908 | Approved | no | ||
| Call Number | refbase @ user @ | Serial | 1829 | ||
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