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Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M., Spierenburg, A. J., & van den Broek, E. T. W. (2006). The workload of riding-school horses during jumping.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING THE STUDY: As there are no reports on the real workload of horses that jump fences, this study was undertaken in riding-school horses. OBJECTIVE: To compare the workload of horses jumping a course of fences with that of horses cantering over the same course at the same average speed without jumping fences. The workload variables included heart rate (HR), packed cell volume (PCV), acid-base balance (venous pH, pCO2, HCO3-) and blood lactate (LA), glucose, total protein and electrolyte concentrations. METHODS: Eight healthy riding-school horses performed test A (a course of approximately 700 m with 12 jumps from 0.8-1.0 m high at an average speed of approximately 350 m/min) and test B (same course at the same speed, but without the rails) in a crossover study with at least 4 h between the 2 tests. Before each test the horses were fitted with a heart rate meter (Polar Electro). Blood samples were taken from the jugular vein at rest prior to the test, after warm-up before starting the course, immediately after the course and after recovery. All samples were analysed immediately. RESULTS: The mean +/- s.d maximal HR (beats/min) during the course (184 +/- 17 and 156 +/- 21, respectively) and the mean HR after recovery (75 +/- 6 and 63 +/- 7, respectively) were significantly higher in test A compared to test B (P = 0.001 and P = 0.007 respectively). The mean LA concentrations after the course and after recovery (mmol/l) were significantly higher in test A (3.6 +/- 2.7 and 1.0 +/- 0.9, respectively) compared to test B (0.9 +/- 0.5 and 0.3 +/- 0.1, respectively), (P = 0.016 and P = 0.048 respectively). The mean PCV (I/l) after the course and after recovery was also significantly different between tests A (0.48 +/- 0.04 and 0.39 +/- 0.03, respectively) and B (0.42 +/- 0.04 and 0.36 +/- 0.03, respectively) (P<0.01). The mean pH and the mean HCO3- (mmol/l) after the course were significantly lower in test A (7.40 +/- 0.04 and 28.9 +/- 1.4, respectively) compared to test B (7.45 +/- 0.03 and 30.4 +/- 2.3, respectively) (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that in riding-school horses jumping fences, even at a low level competition, provokes a significant workload compared to cantering the same distance and speed without fences. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study makes it clear that the extra workload of jumping fences should be taken into account in the training programmes of jumping horses. Further research with more experienced horses jumping higher fences will reveal the workload for top-level jumping horses.
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Gomez Alvarez, C. B., Rhodin, M., Bobber, M. F., Meyer, H., Weishaupt, M. A., Johnston, C., et al. (2006). The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 445–451.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. OBJECTIVES: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. METHODS: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 = as HNP2 with bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 = head and neck lowered, nose behind the vertical; HNP5 = head and neck in extreme high position; HNP6 = head and neck forward and downward. HNP1 was a speed-matched control (head and neck unrestrained). RESULTS: The head and neck positions affected only the flexion-extension motion. The positions in which the neck was extended (HNP2, 3, 5) increased extension in the anterior thoracic region, but increased flexion in the posterior thoracic and lumbar region. For HNP4 the pattern was the opposite. Positions 2, 3 and 5 reduced the flexion-extension range of motion (ROM) while HNP4 increased it. HNP5 was the only position that negatively affected intravertebral pattern symmetry and reduced hindlimb protraction. The stride length was significantly reduced at walk in positions 2, 3, 4 and 5. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant influence of head/neck position on back kinematics. Elevated head and neck induce extension in the thoracic region and flexion in the lumbar region; besides reducing the sagittal range of motion. Lowered head and neck produces the opposite. A very high position of the head and neck seems to disturb normal kinematics. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study provides quantitative data on the effect of head/neck positions on thoracolumbar motion and may help in discussions on the ethical acceptability of some training methods.
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Weishaupt, M. A., Wiestner, T., von Peinen, K., Waldern, N., Roepstorff, L., van Weeren, R., et al. (2006). Effect of head and neck position on vertical ground reaction forces and interlimb coordination in the dressage horse ridden at walk and trot on a treadmill. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 387–392.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Little is known in quantitative terms about the influence of different head-neck positions (HNPs) on the loading pattern of the locomotor apparatus. Therefore it is difficult to predict whether a specific riding technique is beneficial for the horse or if it may increase the risk for injury. OBJECTIVE: To improve the understanding of forelimb-hindlimb balance and its underlying temporal changes in relation to different head and neck positions. METHODS: Vertical ground reaction force and time parameters of each limb were measured in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden at walk and trot on an instrumented treadmill in 6 predetermined HNPs: HNP1 – free, unrestrained with loose reins; HNP2 – neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 – neck raised, bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 – neck lowered and flexed, bridge of the nose considerably behind the vertical; HNP5 – neck extremely elevated and bridge of the nose considerably in front of the vertical; HNP6 – neck and head extended forward and downward. Positions were judged by a qualified dressage judge. HNPs were assessed by comparing the data to a velocity-matched reference HNP (HNP2). Differences were tested using paired t test or Wilcoxon signed rank test (P<0.05). RESULTS: At the walk, stride duration and overreach distance increased in HNP1, but decreased in HNP3 and HNP5. Stride impulse was shifted to the forehand in HNP1 and HNP6, but shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. At the trot, stride duration increased in HNP4 and HNP5. Overreach distance was shorter in HNP4. Stride impulse shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. In HNP1 peak forces decreased in the forelimbs; in HNP5 peak forces increased in fore- and hindlimbs. CONCLUSIONS: HNP5 had the biggest impact on limb timing and load distribution and behaved inversely to HNP1 and HNP6. Shortening of forelimb stance duration in HNP5 increased peak forces although the percentage of stride impulse carried by the forelimbs decreased. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: An extremely high HNP affects functionality much more than an extremely low neck.
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Hintz, R. L. (1980). Genetics of performance in the horse. J. Anim Sci., 51(3), 582–594.
Abstract: Criteria used to measure performance, environmental factors that influence performance and estimates of heritability are needed to estimate genetic differences. Published heritability estimates of various measures of performance in the horse are summarized. The average heritability estimates of pulling ability and cutting ability are .25 and .04, respectively. Heritability estimates are .18, .19 and .17 for log of earnings from jumping, 3-day event and dressage performance, respectively. Heritability estimates of performance rates, log of earnings, earnings, handicap weight, best handicap weight, time and best time for the Thoroughbred are .55, .49, .09, .49, .33, .15 and .23, respectively. Heritability estimates of log of earnings, earnings, time and best time for the trotter are .41, .20, .32, and .25, respectively. The heritability estimate of best time for the pacer is .23. The effectiveness of selection will depend on which performance trait is to be improved.
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Holmstrom, M., Magnusson, L. E., & Philipsson, J. (1990). Variation in conformation of Swedish warmblood horses and conformational characteristics of elite sport horses. Equine Vet J, 22(3), 186–193.
Abstract: The variation in conformation of 356 Swedish Warmblood horses is described, using a quantitative method of measuring horses. Thirty-three of the horses were elite dressage horses, 28 were elite showjumpers, 100 were riding school horses and 195 were unselected four-year-olds. Most horses had a long body form. The average height at the withers was 163.4 cm. Sixty per cent of the horses had a bench knee conformation, 50 per cent had a toe-in conformation of the forelimbs and 80 per cent had outwardly rotated hind limbs. The majority of these deviations were mild or moderate. Conformation was influenced by sex and age. Mares were smaller and had longer bodies and shorter limbs. The elite dressage horses and showjumpers had larger hock angles and more sloping scapulas than other horses. The showjumpers also had smaller fetlock angles in the front limbs. It is suggested that the larger hock angles among the elite horses may be because hocks with small angles are more prone to injury, and because small hock angles may negatively influence the ability to attain the degree of collection necessary for good performance in advanced classes.
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Gutierrez Rincon, J. A., Vives Turco, J., Muro Martinez, I., & Casas Vaque, I. (1992). A comparative study of the metabolic effort expended by horse riders during a jumping competition. Br J Sports Med, 26(1), 33–35.
Abstract: The three main Olympic horse riding disciplines are dressage, jumping, and three-day eventing (including dressage, cross country and jumping). In the jumping discipline (obstacle race), the 'team' (horse rider) is judged under the different conditions that might take place in a varied run. The horse is expected to show power and ability; the rider must show riding skill and good physical condition. However, the different conditions encountered by the rider during competition (duration of event, continuous isometric working level, especially in the inferior trunk, lead us to consider the need for a rider to develop different metabolic pathways to meet the high energy requirements of the competition.
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Argue, C. K., & Clayton, H. M. (1993). A preliminary study of transitions between the walk and trot in dressage horses. Acta Anat (Basel), 146(2-3), 179–182.
Abstract: The object of this study was to determine the limb support sequence during the transitions from walk to trot and from trot to walk in dressage horses under saddle and to test the null hypothesis that the limb support sequence during the transitions is not related to the level of training. Sixteen dressage horses training at novice to FEI Grand Prix level were videotaped performing an average of 9 transitions each from walk to trot and from trot to walk. The 30-Hz videotapes were viewed in slow motion, and based on the limb support sequence the transitions were categorized into two types. In type 1 transitions there were no intermediate steps between the walk and trot sequences. Type 2 transitions were characterized by intermediate steps, including a single support phase. The Kendall rank-order correlation coefficient showed that a higher level of training was positively associated with an increased percentage of type 1 transitions for both walk-to-trot transitions (p < or = 0.05) and trot-to-walk transitions (p < or = 0.01). No significant preference for initiating or completing the trot on the left or right diagonal was found using the binomial test for individual horses and the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test for the group.
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Clayton, H. M. (1993). The extended canter: a comparison of some kinematic variables in horses trained for dressage and for racing. Acta Anat (Basel), 146(2-3), 183–187.
Abstract: This study was designed to test the hypothesis that there is no significant difference in selected temporal and linear stride variables of the extended canter in horses bred and trained for dressage or racing. Nine advanced-level dressage horses and 7 Thoroughbred racehorses were filmed at a frame rate of 200 Hz at an extended canter on a sand track. Two strides were recorded per trial, and each horse performed 6 or 7 trials. Temporal and linear data were determined from the films, and descriptive statistics (mean, SD) were calculated. Strides were selected for analysis on the basis of having a velocity in the range of 6.0-7.0 m/s, and multivariate analysis of variance was used to detect significant differences in the stride kinematics of horses trained for the two sports (p < or = 0.01). The average velocity of the dressage horses was 6.37 m/s, compared with 6.40 m/s for the racehorses. There were no significant differences between the two groups in velocity, stride duration, stride length or the distances between limb placements. The stance durations of all four limbs and the overlaps between them were longer, whereas the duration of the suspension phase was shorter in the dressage horses than in the racehorses (p < or = 0.01). The time between impacts of the diagonal limb pair was close to zero in both groups, with individual horses showing some variability in the order of placement of the diagonal limb pair. However, the sequence of footfalls was not significantly different between the two groups (p < or = 0.01).
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Clayton, H. M. (1993). Development of conditioning programs for dressage horses based on time-motion analysis of competitions. J Appl Physiol, 74(5), 2325–2329.
Abstract: The time-motion characteristics of Canadian basic- and medium-level dressage competitions are described, and the results are applied in formulating sport-specific conditioning programs. One competition was analyzed at the six levels from basic 1 to medium 3. Each test was divided into a series of sequences based on the type and speed of activity. The durations of the sequences were measured from videotapes. The basic-level tests had fewer sequences, and they were shorter in distance and duration than the medium tests (P < 0.10), but the average speed did not differ between the two levels. It is recommended that horses competing at the basic levels be conditioned using 5-min exercise periods, with short (10-s) bursts of lengthened trot and canter included at basic 2 and above. In preparation for medium-level competitions, the duration of the work periods increases to 7 min, 10- to 12-s bursts of medium or extended trot and canter are included, and transitions are performed frequently to simulate the energy expenditure in overcoming inertia.
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Atock, M. A., & Williams, R. B. (1994). Welfare of competition horses. Rev Sci Tech, 13(1), 217–232.
Abstract: In the large majority of cases and circumstances, horses benefit from their association with man. However, abuse of horses can occur, due to neglect or through the pressures of competition. The welfare of all animals, including competition horses, has become increasingly topical over the past ten years. Equestrian sport is coming under closer public scrutiny due to reports of apparent abuse. The bodies responsible for regulating these sports strenuously endeavour to protect the welfare of horses which compete under their rules and regulations. The Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI: International Equestrian Federation) is the sole authority for all international events in dressage, show-jumping, three-day event, driving, endurance riding and vaulting. The FEI rules illustrate the ways in which the welfare of competing horses is safeguarded.
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