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Belock, B., Kaiser, L. J., Lavagnino, M., & Clayton, H. M. (2012). Comparison of pressure distribution under a conventional saddle and a treeless saddle at sitting trot. The Veterinary Journal, 193(1), 87–91.
Abstract: It can be a challenge to find a conventional saddle that is a good fit for both horse and rider. An increasing number of riders are purchasing treeless saddles because they are thought to fit a wider range of equine back shapes, but there is only limited research to support this theory. The objective of this study was to compare the total force and pressure distribution patterns on the horse’s back with conventional and treeless saddles. The experimental hypotheses were that the conventional saddle would distribute the force over a larger area with lower mean and maximal pressures than the treeless saddle. Eight horses were ridden by a single rider at sitting trot with conventional and treeless saddles. An electronic pressure mat measured total force, area of saddle contact, maximal pressure and area with mean pressure >11 kPa for 10 strides with each saddle. Univariate ANOVA (P < 0.05) was used to detect differences between saddles. Compared with the treeless saddle, the conventional saddle distributed the rider’s bodyweight over a larger area, had lower mean and maximal pressures and fewer sensors recording mean pressure >11 kPa. These findings suggested that the saddle tree was effective in distributing the weight of the saddle and rider over a larger area and in avoiding localized areas of force concentration.
Keywords: Horse; Rider; Equitation; Tack; Electronic pressure mat
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Buchner, H. H. F., Obermuller, S., & Scheidl, M. (2000). Body Centre of Mass Movement in the Sound Horse. The Veterinary Journal, 160(3), 225–234.
Abstract: The body centre of mass (BCM) is a key factor in the analysis of equine locomotion, as its position and movement determines the distribution and magnitude of loads on the limbs. In this study, the three-dimensional (3D) movement of the BCM in walking and trotting horses was assessed using a kinematic, segmental method. Thirty markers representing 20 body segments were recorded in 12 sound horses while standing, walking and trotting on a treadmill using a high-speed video system. Based on segmental inertial data, 3D positions of the segmental centres of mass as well as the total BCM were calculated. The position within the trunk during square standing and the movements of the BCM were determined for the three planes. The position of the BCM in the standing horse is presented relative to external reference points. At the trot, vertical displacement amplitude of the BCM amounted to 53 (6) mm as mean (sd), which was 27% smaller than external trunk movement. Medio-lateral displacement amplitude of the BCM was 19 (4) mm, 34% less than trunk amplitude. Sagittal forward-backward oscillations of the BCM independent from general forward movement were 13 (3) mm, being 24% less than trunk movements. At the walk, vertical, medio-lateral and sagittal BCM movements were smaller than trunk movements by 43, 65 and 65% respectively. The results show reduced and efficient BCM movements compared to the trunk and form a basis for the assessment of various clinical conditions such as lameness, the influence of a rider and various dressage performances.
Keywords: Horse; centre of mass; kinematics; segment model; locomotion.
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Clayton, H. M., Larson, B., Kaiser, L. A. J., & Lavagnino, M. (2011). Length and elasticity of side reins affect rein tension at trot. The Veterinary Journal, 188(3), 291–294.
Abstract: This study investigated the horse’s contribution to tension in the reins. The experimental hypotheses were that tension in side reins (1) increases biphasically in each trot stride, (2) changes inversely with rein length, and (3) changes with elasticity of the reins. Eight riding horses trotted in hand at consistent speed in a straight line wearing a bit and bridle and three types of side reins (inelastic, stiff elastic, compliant elastic) were evaluated in random order at long, neutral, and short lengths. Strain gauge transducers (240 Hz) measured minimal, maximal and mean rein tension, rate of loading and impulse. The effects of rein type and length were evaluated using ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests. Rein tension oscillated in a regular pattern with a peak during each diagonal stance phase. Within each rein type, minimal, maximal and mean tensions were higher with shorter reins. At neutral or short lengths, minimal tension increased and maximal tension decreased with elasticity of the reins. Short, inelastic reins had the highest maximal tension and rate of loading. Since the tension variables respond differently to rein elasticity at different lengths, it is recommended that a set of variables representing different aspects of rein tension should be reported.
Keywords: Horse; Equitation; Training; Rein aids
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de Cocq, P., van Weeren, P. R., & Back, W. (2006). Saddle pressure measuring: Validity, reliability and power to discriminate between different saddle-fits. The Veterinary Journal, 172(2), 265–273.
Abstract: Saddle-fit is recognised as an important factor in the pathogenesis of back problems in horses and is empirically being evaluated by pressure measurements in clinical practice, although not much is known about the validity, reliability and usability of these devices in the equine field. This study was conducted to assess critically a pressure measurement system marketed for evaluating saddle fit. Validity was tested by calculating the correlation coefficient between total measured pressure and the weight of 28 different riders. Reliability and discriminative power with respect to different saddle fitting methods were evaluated in a highly standardised, paired measurement set-up in which saddle-fit was quantified by air-pressure values inside the panels of the saddle. Total pressures under the saddle correlated well with riders’ weight. A large increase in over-day sensor variation was found. Within trial intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) were excellent, but the between trial ICCs varied from poor to excellent and the variation in total pressure was high. In saddles in which the fit was adjusted to individual asymmetries of the horse, the pressure measurement device was able to detect correctly air-pressure differences between the two panels in the back area of the saddle, but not in the front area. The device yielded valid results, but was only reliable in highly standardised conditions. The results question the indiscriminate use of current saddle pressure measurement devices for the quantitative assessment of saddle-fit under practical conditions and suggest that further technical improvement may be necessary.
Keywords: Horse; Pressure; Back; Saddle; Saddle-fit
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Douglas Wilson, A. (2006). The effects of diet on blood glucose, insulin, gastrin and the serum tryptophan: Large neutral amino acid ratio in foals. Vet J, .
Abstract: High carbohydrate diets can affect the health and behaviour of foals, but the mechanisms are not always fully understood. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of feeding a starch and sugar (SS), or a fat (oil) and fibre (FF) rich diet to two groups of eight foals. Diets were fed from 4 to 42 weeks of age, alongside ad libitum forage. Faecal pH levels did not differ significantly between groups and endoscopic examination showed that the gastric mucosa was healthy in both groups at 25 and 42 weeks of age. At 40 weeks of age, SS foals had significantly higher total blood glucose and lower total blood gastrin than FF foals during the 6h period following ingestion of their respective diets, but insulin levels did not differ significantly. The ratio between serum tryptophan and other large neutral amino acids showed a trend towards an interaction between diet and sampling time. The results provide preliminary information about the effects of diet on the physiology of young horses.
Keywords: Diet; Horse; Insulin; Gastrin; Tryptophan
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Geutjens, C. A., Clayton, H. M., & Kaiser, L. J. (2008). Forces and pressures beneath the saddle during mounting from the ground and from a raised mounting platform. The Veterinary Journal, 175(3), 332–337.
Abstract: The objective was to use an electronic pressure mat to measure and compare forces and pressures of the saddle on a horse's back when riders mounted from the ground and with the aid of a mounting platform. Ten riders mounted a horse three times each from the ground and from a 35 cm high mounting platform in random order. Total force (summation of forces over all 256 sensors) was measured and compared at specific points on the force-time curve. Total force was usually highest as the rider's right leg was swinging upwards and was correlated with rider mass. When normalized to rider mass, total force and peak pressure were significantly higher when mounting from the ground than from a raised platform (P < 0.05). The area of highest pressure was on the right side of the withers in 97% of mounting efforts, confirming the importance of the withers in stabilizing the saddle during mounting.
Keywords: Electronic saddle mat; Total force; Peak pressure; Equestrian; Kinetics
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Goodwin, D., McGreevy, P., Waran, N., & McLean, A. (2009). How equitation science can elucidate and refine horsemanship techniques. Special Issue: Equitation Science, 181(1), 5–11.
Abstract: The long-held belief that human dominance and equine submission are key to successful training and that the horse must be taught to [`]respect' the trainer infers that force is often used during training. Many horses respond by trialling unwelcome evasions, resistances and flight responses, which readily become established. When unable to cope with problem behaviours, some handlers in the past might have been encouraged to use harsh methods or devices while others may have called in a so-called [`]good horseman' or [`]horse whisperer' to remediate the horse. Frequently, the approaches such practitioners offer could not be applied by the horse's owner or trainer because of their lack of understanding or inability to apply the techniques. Often it seemed that these [`]horse-people' had magical ways with horses (e.g., they only had to whisper to them) that achieved impressive results although they had little motivation to divulge their techniques. As we begin to appreciate how to communicate with horses sensitively and consistently, misunderstandings and misinterpretations by horse and trainer should become less common. Recent studies have begun to reveal what comprises the simplest, most humane and most effective mechanisms in horse training and these advances are being matched by greater sharing of knowledge among practitioners. Indeed, various practitioners of what is referred to here as [`]natural horsemanship' now use techniques similar to the [`]whisperers' of old, but they are more open about their methods. Reputable horse trainers using natural horsemanship approaches are talented observers of horse behaviour and respond consistently and swiftly to the horse's subtle cues during training. For example, in the roundpen these trainers apply an aversive stimulus to prompt a flight response and then, when the horse slows down, moves toward them, or offers space-reducing affiliative signals, the trainer immediately modifies his/her agonistic signals, thus negatively reinforcing the desired response. Learning theory and equine ethology, the fundamentals of the emerging discipline of equitation science, can be used to explain almost all the behaviour modification that goes on in these contexts and in conventional horsemanship. By measuring and evaluating what works and what does not, equitation science has the potential to have a unifying effect on traditional practices and developing branches of equitation.
Keywords: Horse; Training; Equitation; Learning theory; Ethology; Cognition
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Harris, P. A. (2007). How should we feed horses – and how many times a day? The Veterinary Journal, 173(2), 252–253. |
Heleski, C. R., McGreevy, P. D., Kaiser, L. J., Lavagnino, M., Tans, E., Bello, N., et al. (2009). Effects on behaviour and rein tension on horses ridden with or without martingales and rein inserts. The Veterinary Journal, 181(1), 56–62.
Abstract: Unsteady hand position can cause discomfort to the horse, potentially leading to conflict behaviours (CB) such as head tossing or tail lashing. Some instructors feel that martingales or elastic rein inserts can reduce discomfort caused by inexperienced and unsteady hands. Others consider these devices to be inappropriate [`]crutches'. Four horses and nine riders were tested under three conditions in random order: plain reins, adjustable training martingales (TM), and elasticised rein inserts (RI). Rein-tension data (7Â s) and behavioural data (30Â s) were collected in each direction. Rein-tension data were collected via strain-gauge transducers. Behavioural data were assessed using an ethogram of defined behaviours. No differences in the number of CB were observed. Mean rein tension for TM was higher than that of RI or controls. Relative to the withers, the head was lower for horses ridden with martingales. Carefully fitted martingales may have a place in riding schools that teach novices.
Keywords: Horse behaviour; Horse welfare; Equitation science; Rein tension; Martingales
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Keeling, L. J., Jonare, L., & Lanneborn, L. (2009). Investigating horse–human interactions: The effect of a nervous human. Vet J, 181(1), 70–71.
Abstract: The heart rates (HR) of horses and the people leading them (10 horses, 20 people), and riding them (17 horses, 17 people), were recorded in an indoor arena. The horses were Swedish leisure horses of mixed ages, sex and breed. All except two of the people were female and all were of mixed age and riding experience. Each horse–human pair walked or rode between points A and B (30 m) four times on each test occasion. However, just before the fourth pass, participants were told that an umbrella would be opened as they rode, or led, the horse past the assistant. The umbrella was not opened, so this pass was no different to the previous control occasions, but nevertheless there was an increase in HR for both the person (leading, P = 0.06; riding, P < 0.05) and the horse (being led, P < 0.05; being ridden, P < 0.05). The findings indicate that analysis of HR recorded simultaneously from people and horses under different experimental handling or riding conditions presents a useful tool to investigate horse–human interactions.
Keywords: Behaviour; Reactivity; Heart rate; Accidents; Equitation
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