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Brust, V., & Guenther, A. (2015). Domestication effects on behavioural traits and learning performance: comparing wild cavies to guinea pigs. Anim. Cogn., 18(1), 99–109.
Abstract: The domestication process leads to a change in behavioural traits, usually towards individuals that are less attentive to changes in their environment and less aggressive. Empirical evidence for a difference in cognitive performance, however, is scarce. Recently, a functional linkage between an individual's behaviour and cognitive performance has been proposed in the framework of animal personalities via a shared risk-reward trade-off. Following this assumption, bolder and more aggressive animals (usually the wild form) should learn faster. Differences in behaviour may arise during ontogeny due to individual experiences or represent adaptations that occurred over the course of evolution. Both might singly or taken together account for differences in cognitive performance between wild and domestic lineages. To test for such possible linkages, we compared wild cavies and domestic guinea pigs, both kept in a university stock for more than 30 years under highly comparable conditions. Animals were tested in three behavioural tests as well as for initial and reversal learning performance. Guinea pigs were less bold and aggressive than their wild congeners, but learnt an association faster. Additionally, the personality structure was altered during the domestication process. The most likely explanation for these findings is that a shift in behavioural traits and their connectivity led to an altered cognitive performance. A functional linkage between behavioural and cognitive traits seems to exist in the proposed way only under natural selection, but not in animals that have been selected artificially over centuries.
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Webster, M. M., & Laland, K. N. (2008). Social learning strategies and predation risk: minnows copy only when using private information would be costly. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 275(1653), 2869–2876.
Abstract: Animals can acquire information from the environment privately, by sampling it directly, or socially, through learning from others. Generally, private information is more accurate, but expensive to acquire, while social information is cheaper but less reliable. Accordingly, the 'costly information hypothesis' predicts that individuals will use private information when the costs associated with doing so are low, but that they should increasingly use social information as the costs of using private information rise. While consistent with considerable data, this theory has yet to be directly tested in a satisfactory manner. We tested this hypothesis by giving minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus) a choice between socially demonstrated and non-demonstrated prey patches under conditions of low, indirect and high simulated predation risk. Subjects had no experience (experiment 1) or prior private information that conflicted with the social information provided by the demonstrators (experiment 2). In both experiments, subjects spent more time in the demonstrated patch than in the non-demonstrated patch, and in experiment 1 made fewer switches between patches, when risk was high compared with when it was low. These findings are consistent with the predictions of the costly information hypothesis, and imply that minnows adopt a 'copy-when-asocial-learning-is-costly' learning strategy.
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Knolle, F., Goncalves, R. P., & Morton, A. J. (2017). Sheep recognize familiar and unfamiliar human faces from two-dimensional images. Royal Society Open Science, 4(11).
Abstract: One of the most important human social skills is the ability to recognize faces. Humans recognize familiar faces easily, and can learn to identify unfamiliar faces from repeatedly presented images. Sheep are social animals that can recognize other sheep as well as familiar humans. Little is known, however, about their holistic face-processing abilities. In this study, we trained eight sheep (Ovis aries) to recognize the faces of four celebrities from photographic portraits displayed on computer screens. After training, the sheep chose the 'learned-familiar' faces rather than the unfamiliar faces significantly above chance. We then tested whether the sheep could recognize the four celebrity faces if they were presented in different perspectives. This ability has previously been shown only in humans. Sheep successfully recognized the four celebrity faces from tilted images. Interestingly, there was a drop in performance with the tilted images (from 79.22 ± 7.5% to 66.5 ± 4.1%) of a magnitude similar to that seen when humans perform this task. Finally, we asked whether sheep could recognize a very familiar handler from photographs. Sheep identified the handler in 71.8 ± 2.3% of the trials without pretraining. Together these data show that sheep have advanced face-recognition abilities, comparable with those of humans and non-human primates.
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Smolla, M., Alem, S., Chittka, L., & Shultz, S. (2016). Copy-when-uncertain: bumblebees rely on social information when rewards are highly variable. Biol. Lett., 12(6).
Abstract: To understand the relative benefits of social and personal information use in foraging decisions, we developed an agent-based model of social learning that predicts social information should be more adaptive where resources are highly variable and personal information where resources vary little. We tested our predictions with bumblebees and found that foragers relied more on social information when resources were variable than when they were not. We then investigated whether socially salient cues are used preferentially over non-social ones in variable environments. Although bees clearly used social cues in highly variable environments, under the same conditions they did not use non-social cues. These results suggest that bumblebees use a 'copy-when-uncertain' strategy.
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Pongrácz.
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Kaczensky, P., & Huber, K. (2010). The Use of High Frequency GPS Data to Classify Main Behavioural Categories in a Przewalski’s Horse in the Mongolian Gobi. DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska – Lincoln, .
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Hampson, B. A., Zabek, M. A., Pollitt, C. C., & Nock, B. (2011). Health and behaviour consequences of feral horse relocation. Rangel. J., 33(2), 173–180.
Abstract: Despite ongoing projects involving the breeding and release of equids into semi-wild and wild environments, insufficient information is available in the literature that describes strategies used by equids to adapt and survive in a novel environment. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of naïve, feral Equus caballus (horse) mares to cope in a novel feral horse environment and investigate possible reasons why some may not survive this challenge. Four mares taken from a semi-arid desert environment remained in good health but significantly changed their movement behaviour pattern when surrounded by prime grazing habitat in a mesic temperate grassland. Three of the four mares captured from the prime grazing habitat and released in the semi-arid desert habitat died, apparently due to stress and/or starvation, within 8 weeks of release. The fourth mare survived 4 months but lost considerable weight.The group of mares relocated to the semi-arid desert environment had difficulty adapting to relocation and did not take up the movement behaviour strategy of local horses, which required long distance treks from a central water hole to distant feeding areas at least 15 km away. The movement behaviour, range use and health consequences of relocating equids may be of interest to wildlife ecologists, animal behaviourists and horse welfare groups. The observations may be used to guide those intending on relocating managed domestic and native horses to novel habitats.
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Bailey, D. (2016). Dominance Hierarchies in Horses: Comparing and Contrasting Different Methods for Assessing Hierarchies. Ursidae: The Undergraduate Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado, 5(3).
Abstract: Understanding animal social structures is imperative when it comes to the care, housing and handling of large herd animals. Knowing how hierarchies are structured, along with environmental and physiological aspects that may affect them, will allow owners and breeders to house and care for their animals. The aim of my study was to better understand two methods used to assess dominance hierarchies in horses, Equus caballus, and to predict which method would be more useful for owners housing domestic horses. I designed an experiment where I compared a structured method, the paired feeding test, with behavioral observations from the horses’ natural setting. I hypothesized that the structured method would not conclude the same dominance hierarchy as the natural observations. I also hypothesized that traits of the horses, such as size or age, would correlate with the hierarchy ranking within a herd. A herd of six individual horses from a small ranch east of Platteville, Colorado was used to test the two methods. I found that the two methods measured different hierarchies. The paired feeding test showed no correlations to any of the physical measurements, as well as did not provide a hierarchy that was similar to the natural dominance observations of the horses. Natural observations established a more linear hierarchy and had significant correlations with weight and overall body size. The results indicate that the paired feeding test may not be a valid method for establishing dominance hierarchies within domestic horses housed in a small range.
I recommend use of natural observations over paired feeding tests for ranchers, breeders or owners trying to understand the dominance hierarchies among their herds.
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Leiner, L. (2006). Vergleich verschiedener Methoden zur Angstextinktion bei Pferden. Diploma thesis, , .
Abstract: Pferde sind Fluchttiere. Ihr Fluchtinstinkt bewirkt, dass sie sich leicht erschrecken und auch in
diversen Situationen mit Flucht reagieren. Diese Tatsache ist den meisten Reitern bekannt,
nur ist es für den Menschen teilweise schwer, mit dieser Eigenschaft auszukommen und sie zu
verstehen oder gar nachzuvollziehen. So kommt es häufig zu Unfällen, die aus der Angst der
Pferde resultieren, jedoch vermeidbar gewesen wären, hätte man ankündigende Signale früher
erkannt. Des Weiteren kann die Angst eines Pferdes auch durch eine (Ver-) Weigerung,
bestimmte Dinge zu tun, sichtbar werden. Diese Weigerung wird in der Reiterei gerne als
„Bockigkeit“ und „Ungehorsam“ des Pferdes interpretiert und führt nicht selten zu einer
Bestrafung. Insgesamt kann man sagen, dass angstauslösende Reize und die Reaktionen des
Pferdes darauf oft falsch eingeschätzt oder falsch interpretiert werden und in der Folge auch
falsch damit umgegangen wird. Ein Grund dafür ist sicher das fehlende Wissen über das
Verhalten des Pferdes. Mit der vorliegenden Diplomarbeit soll ein Beitrag geleistet werden,
das Pferd in seinem Angstverhalten besser zu verstehen. Ziel der Arbeit war es, das Verhalten
des Pferdes bei verschiedenen Intensitäten von Angst zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren wurden
Methoden untersucht, mit denen man die Angst von Pferden vor bestimmten Reizen und
Situationen potentiell lindern kann, was letztendlich auch der Unfallvorbeugung dient.
Die vorliegende Diplomarbeit wurde am Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach durchgeführt; 24
Junghengste standen hierfür zur Verfügung. Darunter waren 18 Deutsche Warmblüter, 3
Vollblutaraber und 3 Schwarzwälder Füchse (Kaltblüter), somit war auch ein Rassenvergleich
möglich.
In einem ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde untersucht, wie sich Angst bei Pferden äußert. Hierfür
wurde ausgenutzt, dass Pferde ganz generell vor unbekannten, neuen Gegenständen Angst
haben (= Neophobie). Zur Angstauslösung dienten als Konfrontationsgegenstände ein
Sonnenschirm und eine Plastikplane. Beide Gegenstände waren für die Testpferde unbekannt.
Das Verhalten sowie die Herzrate der Tiere wurden während aller Versuche beobachtet und
quantifiziert. Nacheiner ersten Konfrontation wurden die Pferde an die Objekte gewöhnt
(Extinktionstraining = Angstlöschung) und beobachtet welche Verhaltensymptome sich
während dieser Gewöhnung (= Verlust der Neophobie) verändern. Die Hypothese war, dass
tatsächliche Angstsymptome während der Gewöhnung immer seltener zu beobachten sind.
Zusammenfassung III
Als Verhaltensweisen für Angst konnten Ausweichbewegungen und Flucht, Lautäußerungen
(Prusten und Schnauben), das Anspannen der Halsmuskulatur sowie das Vordrücken der
Oberlippe identifiziert werden. Darüber hinaus wurde gezeigt, dass Abstufungen im
Angstverhalten möglich sind: Bei sehr hohem Angstlevel sind Fluchtreaktionen zu
beobachten. Bei mittlerem Angstlevel treten Ausweichbewegungen im Schritt und
Lautäußerungen (Prusten und Schnauben) auf, bei geringem Angstlevel wird die
Halsmuskulatur angespannt und die Oberlippe vorgedrückt.
Im Zweiten Teil der Arbeit sollten verschiedene Methoden zur Angst-Extinktionauf ihre
Wirksamkeit hin untersucht werden. Verwendet wurde in verschiedenen Testgruppen die
Methode der Desensibilisierung (d.h. leichte, schrittweise stärker werdende Exposition
gegenüber dem angstauslösenden Reiz), die Desensibilisierung mit Gegenkonditionierung
(positive Verstärkung) durch Streicheln bzw. Reiben des Halses und die Desensibilisierung
mit Gegenkonditionierung durch Futterbelohnung. Als Kontrollgruppe dienten Pferde, die
ohne eine Konfrontation mit dem angstauslösenden Reiz nur über den Versuchplatz geführt
wurden.
Während des Extinktionstrainings konnte beobachtet werden, dass die Desensibilisierung mit
Gegenkonditionierung zu einer schnelleren Extinktion führt als ohne Gegenkonditionierung.
Allerdings zeigte ein Vergleich mit der Kontrollgruppe, die das Extinktionstraining nicht
erfahren hatte, den gleichen Verlust an Angstverhalten wie die Gruppen mit Extinktionstraining.
Dieses Ergebnis wurde so interpretiert, dass die wiederholte Exposition gegenüber
angstauslösenden Reizen bei den durchgeführten Verhaltenstests zwar eine Rolle spielt, doch
dass auch allein die Beschäftigung mit den Tieren zu einem Verlust von Angstverhalten führt
(wahrscheinlich auch aufgrund eines wachsenden Vertrauens zur Führperson, die über das
komplette Experiment hin die Gleiche blieb).
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Kiliç, S., & Cantürk, G. (2017). Car Accident Due to Horse Crossing the Motorway: Two Case Reports. Bull. Leg. Med., 22.
Abstract: Basic Commercial Court in Ankara wanted a report from our department of forensic medicine about two injury cases due to animal vehicle collision. The reports should include the disability rate and the duration of unfunctionality. After the examination we prepared the reports. Both vehicle collisions happened due to free ranging horse crossing the motorway. Both cases had different types of injury due to trauma. Vehicle collision due to horse crossing the motorway is rarely met in Turkey.
Our first case is a man that had upper extremity and facial injury. He uses prothesis due to ear amputation. He has a scar tissue on the right side of his face and left forearm. The other case is three-years-old boy that had cranial bone fracture and cranial hematoma. He has also hemiparesis of the right side of body. Both cases have neurologic sequels but they have no psychiatric sequels.
In literature, animal vehicle collisions involve lots of animal species such as kangaroo, deer, camel and moose. Animal vehicle collision involving the horses is rarely met. Forensic medicine specialists should state the causal link between traumatic events and disabilities in order to help justice. Our aim to present the current two cases is investigation of injuries of animal related collision and makes forensic medicine specialists pay attention to the subject of preparing reports about such cases.
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