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	Author	Dunbar, K.; MacLeod, C.M.
	Title	A horse race of a different color: Stroop interference patterns with transformed words			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1984	Publication	Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform
	Volume	10	Issue	5	Pages	622-639
	Keywords	Attention; Color Perception; Discrimination Learning; Humans; Orientation; Reaction Time; Reading; *Semantics
	Abstract	Four experiments investigated Stroop interference using geometrically transformed words. Over experiments, reading was made increasingly difficult by manipulating orientation uncertainty and the number of noncolor words. As a consequence, time to read color words aloud increased dramatically. Yet, even when reading a color word was considerably slower than naming the color of ink in which the word was printed, Stroop interference persisted virtually unaltered. This result is incompatible with the simple horse race model widely used to explain color-word interference. When reading became extremely slow, a reversed Stroop effect--interference in reading the word due to an incongruent ink color--appeared for one transformation together with the standard Stroop interference. Whether or not the concept of automaticity is invoked, relative speed of processing the word versus the color does not provide an adequate overall explanation of the Stroop phenomenon.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0096-1523	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:6238123			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4065
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	Author	Wolfe, J.M.
	Title	Hidden visual processes			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1983	Publication	Scientific American	Abbreviated Journal	Sci Am
	Volume	248	Issue	2	Pages	94-103
	Keywords	Color Perception/physiology; Humans; Motion Perception/physiology; Ocular Physiology; Vision; Visual Perception/physiology
	Abstract	Isoluminant stimulus is an image whose edges are defined only by a change in color, not by change in brightness. The stimulus here is imperfect: the blue parts and the green parts of the image are only as nearly equal in brightness as they can be on the printed page. Moreover, the change in brightness beyond the edge of the page is apparent, and so is the fact that the reader is holding the magazine at reading distance. When such cues are removed under laboratory conditions, subjects faced with an isoluminant stimulus prove unable to bring its edges into focus. This deficiency contributes to making a familiar face hard to recognize. The experiment indicates that the brain process underlying visual accommodation (the focusing of the eyes) cannot “see” color; it is a hidden process distinct from the processes that lead to perception. The image shows Groucho Marx as he appeared in the motion picture Horse Feathers.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0036-8733	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:6836258			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4066
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	Author	Salzen, E.A.; Cornell, J.M.
	Title	Self-perception and species recognition in birds			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1968	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	30	Issue	1	Pages	44-65
	Keywords	Animals; Birds; Color Perception; Discrimination Learning; Generalization, Response; Imprinting (Psychology); Perception; Self Concept; Social Isolation; *Species Specificity; Water
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0005-7959	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:5644775			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4154
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	Author	Zentall, S.S.; Zentall, T.R.; Barack, R.C.
	Title	Distraction as a function of within-task stimulation for hyperactive and normal children			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1978	Publication	Journal of learning disabilities	Abbreviated Journal	J Learn Disabil
	Volume	11	Issue	9	Pages	540-548
	Keywords	Attention; Child; Child, Preschool; Color Perception; Female; Humans; Hyperkinesis/psychology; Male; Motor Skills; *Task Performance and Analysis; Visual Perception
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0022-2194	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:731119			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	270
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	Author	Shettleworth, S.J.
	Title	Memory and hippocampal specialization in food-storing birds: challenges for research on comparative cognition			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Brain, behavior and evolution	Abbreviated Journal	Brain Behav Evol
	Volume	62	Issue	2	Pages	108-116
	Keywords	Animals; Birds/physiology; Cognition/physiology; Color Perception/physiology; Feeding Behavior/physiology; Hippocampus/physiology; Memory/*physiology; Species Specificity
	Abstract	The three-way association among food-storing behavior, spatial memory, and hippocampal enlargement in some species of birds is widely cited as an example of a new 'cognitive ecology' or 'neuroecology.' Whether this relationship is as strong as it first appears and whether it might be evidence for an adaptive specialization of memory and hippocampus in food-storers have recently been the subject of some controversy [Bolhuis and Macphail, 2001; Macphail and Bolhuis, 2001]. These critiques are based on misconceptions about the nature of adaptive specializations in cognition, misconceptions about the uniformity of results to be expected from applying the comparative method to data from a wide range of species, and a narrow view of what kinds of cognitive adaptations are theoretically interesting. New analyses of why food-storers (black-capped chickadees, Poecile Atricapilla) respond preferentially to spatial over color cues when both are relevant in a memory task show that this reflects a relative superiority of spatial memory as compared to memory for color rather than exceptional spatial attention or spatial discrimination ability. New studies of chickadees from more or less harsh winter climates also support the adaptive specialization hypothesis and suggest that within-species comparisons may be especially valuable for unraveling details of the relationships among ecology, memory, and brain in food-storing species.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., M5S 3G3, Canada. shettle@psych.utoronto.ca
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0006-8977	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12937349			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	367
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	Author	Hanggi, E.B.; Ingersoll, J.F.; Waggoner, T.L.
	Title	*Color vision in horses (Equus caballus): deficiencies identified using a pseudoisochromatic plate test*			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Journal of Comparative Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J. Comp. Psychol.
	Volume	121	Issue	1	Pages	65-72
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Color Perception; Color Perception Tests/veterinary; Discrimination Learning; Female; Horses/*psychology; Male; Sensitivity and Specificity
	Abstract	In the past, equine color vision was tested with stimuli composed either of painted cards or photographic slides or through physiological testing using electroretinogram flicker photometry. Some studies produced similar results, but others did not, demonstrating that there was not yet a definitive answer regarding color vision in horses (Equus caballus). In this study, a pseudoisochromatic plate test--which is highly effective in testing color vision both in small children and in adult humans--was used for the first time on a nonhuman animal. Stimuli consisted of different colored dotted circles set against backgrounds of varying dots. The coloration of the circles corresponded to the visual capabilities of different types of color deficiencies (anomalous trichromacy and dichromacy). Four horses were tested on a 2-choice discrimination task. All horses successfully reached criterion for gray circles and demonstration circles. None of the horses were able to discriminate the protan-deutan plate or the individual protan or deutan plates. However, all were able to discriminate the tritan plate. The results suggest that horses are dichromats with color vision capabilities similar to those of humans with red-green color deficiencies.
	Address	Equine Research Foundation, Aptos, CA 95001, USA. EquiResF@aol.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17324076			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @ ; Equine Behaviour @ team @ room B 3.029			Serial	1972
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	Author	Carroll, J.; Murphy, C.J.; Neitz, M.; Hoeve, J.N.; Neitz, J.
	Title	Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in the horse			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Journal of Vision	Abbreviated Journal	J Vis
	Volume	1	Issue	2	Pages	80-87
	Keywords	Adaptation, Physiological; Animals; Color Perception/physiology; Cones (Retina)/chemistry/physiology; Electroretinography; Horses/physiology; Photic Stimulation; Phototransduction/physiology; Retinal Pigments/analysis/physiology; Visual Perception/physiology
	Abstract	Horses, like other ungulates, are active in the day, at dusk, dawn, and night; and, they have eyes designed to have both high sensitivity for vision in dim light and good visual acuity under higher light levels (Walls, 1942). Typically, daytime activity is associated with the presence of multiple cone classes and color-vision capacity (Jacobs, 1993). Previous studies in other ungulates, such as pigs, goats, cows, sheep and deer, have shown that they have two spectrally different cone types, and hence, at least the photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision (Neitz & Jacobs, 1989; Jacobs, Deegan II, Neitz, Murphy, Miller, & Marchinton, 1994; Jacobs, Deegan II, & Neitz, 1998). Here, electroretinogram flicker photometry was used to measure the spectral sensitivities of the cones in the domestic horse (Equus caballus). Two distinct spectral mechanisms were identified and are consistent with the presence of a short-wavelength-sensitive (S) and a middle-to-long-wavelength-sensitive (M/L) cone. The spectral sensitivity of the S cone was estimated to have a peak of 428 nm, while the M/L cone had a peak of 539 nm. These two cone types would provide the basis for dichromatic color vision consistent with recent results from behavioral testing of horses (Macuda & Timney, 1999; Macuda & Timney, 2000; Timney & Macuda, 2001). The spectral peak of the M/L cone photopigment measured here, in vivo, is similar to that obtained when the gene was sequenced, cloned, and expressed in vitro (Yokoyama & Radlwimmer, 1999). Of the ungulates that have been studied to date, all have the photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision; however, they differ considerably from one another in the spectral tuning of their cone pigments. These differences may represent adaptations to the different visual requirements of different species.
	Address	Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1534-7362	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12678603			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4060
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	Author	Yokoyama, S.; Radlwimmer, F.B.
	Title	The molecular genetics of red and green color vision in mammals			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Genetics	Abbreviated Journal	Genetics
	Volume	153	Issue	2	Pages	919-932
	Keywords	Amino Acid Sequence; Animals; Base Sequence; COS Cells; Cats; Color Perception/genetics; DNA Primers; Deer; Dolphins; Evolution, Molecular; Goats; Guinea Pigs; Horses; Humans; Mammals/genetics/physiology; Mice; Molecular Sequence Data; Opsin/biosynthesis/chemistry/genetics; *Phylogeny; Rabbits; Rats; Recombinant Proteins/biosynthesis; Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction; Sciuridae; Sequence Alignment; Sequence Homology, Amino Acid; Transfection
	Abstract	To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of red-green color vision in mammals, we have cloned and sequenced the red and green opsin cDNAs of cat (Felis catus), horse (Equus caballus), gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). These opsins were expressed in COS1 cells and reconstituted with 11-cis-retinal. The purified visual pigments of the cat, horse, squirrel, deer, and guinea pig have lambdamax values at 553, 545, 532, 531, and 516 nm, respectively, which are precise to within +/-1 nm. We also regenerated the “true” red pigment of goldfish (Carassius auratus), which has a lambdamax value at 559 +/- 4 nm. Multiple linear regression analyses show that S180A, H197Y, Y277F, T285A, and A308S shift the lambdamax values of the red and green pigments in mammals toward blue by 7, 28, 7, 15, and 16 nm, respectively, and the reverse amino acid changes toward red by the same extents. The additive effects of these amino acid changes fully explain the red-green color vision in a wide range of mammalian species, goldfish, American chameleon (Anolis carolinensis), and pigeon (Columba livia).
	Address	Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244, USA. syokoyam@mailbox.syr.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0016-6731	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10511567			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4063
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	Author	Pick, D.F.; Lovell, G.; Brown, S.; Dail, D.
	Title	Equine color perception revisited			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1994	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	42	Issue	1	Pages	61-65
	Keywords	Equine; Color perception; Dichromat
	Abstract	An attempt to replicate Grzimek (1952; Z. Tierpsychol., 27: 330-338) is reported where a Quarter-Horse mare chose between colored and gray stimuli for food reinforcement. Stimuli varied across a broad range of reflectance values. A double-blind procedure with additional controls for auditory, olfactory, tactile, and position cues was used. The subject could reliably discriminate blue (462 nm) vs. gray, and red (700 nm) vs. gray without regard to reflectance (P<0.001), but could not discriminate green (496 nm) vs. gray. It is suggested that horses are dichromats in a manner similar to swine and cattle.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4368
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	Author	Pick, D. Kendra, B.; Steciuch, C.
	Title	The Familiarity Heuristic in the Horse (Equus caballus)			Type	Conference Article
	Year	2015	Publication	Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting	Abbreviated Journal	Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg
	Volume		Issue		Pages
	Keywords	color perception, learning theory, prospect theory
	Abstract	This study replicated an unreported finding observed in a color perception experiment (Pick, Lovell, Brown, & Dail, 1994) where, after using the method of successive approximations to train a blue-gray discrimination, red-gray trials were initiated without further training. Although a gray choice had never been reinforced, the subject chose gray on the first 20 trials (p < .000001). In the study reported here, a horse was trained to approach a red feed bucket and not a green feed bucket. After the subject mastered the discrimination, a blue bucket was substituted for the previously reinforced red bucket. With double-blind controls in place, the subject chose the unreinforced green bucket on 15 out of the first 20 blue-green trials yielding a binomial p = 0.0148 that this outcome could be due to chance alone. These results are contrary to all behavioristic psychological learning theories, but consistent with prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). Prospect theory predicts that given a choice between two previously unreinforced stimuli, one familiar and the other novel, humans will choose the familiar. It is argued that the bias toward the familiar is the basis to a heuristic that has a genetic origin and should exist in other animals on the phylogenetic scale. The results of this study indicate that the heuristic is available at least as far down the scale as the horse. Conceptual replications using shape stimuli and sound stimuli are in progress.
	Address
	Corporate Author	Pick, D.			Thesis
	Publisher	Xenophon Publishing	Place of Publication	Wald	Editor	; Krueger, K.
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	978-3-95625-000-2	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	Id -			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5899
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